If a Puerto Rican moves to the USA can they vote

Flamenco Beach or “Tank Beach” on the island of Culebra, Puerto Rico.

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If a Puerto Rican moves to a U.S. state can they vote?

• United States citizens can freely reside in any of the 50 states and are automatically conferred the same rights, such as voting, as any other citizen (Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship by the Jones Act of 1917).

People born in Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens by birth. But because Puerto Rico, like Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands, is not part of the 50 states or D.C., those who reside in Puerto Rico are not allowed to vote for the President or to elect a voting member of the United States. Those who move from Puerto Rico to live in one of the 50 states or the District of Columbia can vote in federal elections.

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Equal citizenship not equal places

This process also works in reverse. Once a mainlander moves to Puerto Rico, and establishes residency, they lose their right to vote in organized Federal Government elections.

During the 2020 presidential election, Brock Peirce, an independent candidate, received nearly 50,000 popular votes. Brock Pierce, originally from Minnesota and a full-time Puerto Rican resident since 2017, was eligible to run for President but is not eligible to vote for the U.S. presidency.

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Playa Negra - Vieques (Puerto Rico)

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Territory: Voting & Taxes

Voting rights or lack thereof is related to Puerto Rico’s classification as a commonwealth that functions as an unincorporated organized territory. While residents of Puerto Rico are ineligible to vote in federal elections, they also do not pay federal income tax. 

• This also applies to Guam, U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands.

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Puerto Rico, 1,014 miles from Miami, Florida, and 1,557 miles from Washington D.C. (Image Source: Garrett)

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Voting Rights: States

Article 1, Section 2 of the United States Constitution could not be any clearer:

“The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.”

Puerto Rico is a commonwealth or territory and is NOT a U.S. state. As such, citizens of the island are not represented in the U.S. House of Representatives.

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Puerto Ricans: American Citizens Since 1917

1493

Christopher Columbus landed on the west coast of the main island of present-day Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493

1898

Puerto Rico became part of the United States via the Treaty of Paris after Spain's defeat in the Spanish-American War

1917

The Jones Act extended U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia and Puerto Rico. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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Related articles from Pedal Chile

• Is Puerto Rico Part of the United States?

• Can I drink the tap water in Puerto Rico?

Sources & References

1. Cotter, Daniel. “Territories of the United States – Constituting America.” Constitutingamerica.org, constitutingamerica.org/territories-of-the-united-states-guest-essayist-daniel-a-cotter/.

2. Franqui-Rivera, Harry. “National Mythologies: U.S. Citizenship for the People of Puerto Rico and Military Service.” Memorias: Revista Digital de Historia Y Arqueología Desde El Caribe, no. 21, 2013, pp. 5–21.

3. Fortier, John C. “The Constitution Is Clear: Only States Vote in Congress.” Www.yalelawjournal.org, 19 May 2007, www.yalelawjournal.org/forum/the-constitution-is-clear-only-states-vote-in-congress.

4. Garrett, R. Sam. “‘Political Status of Puerto Rico: Brief Background and Recent Developments for Congress.’” UNT Digital Library, 12 June 2017, digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc990757/.

5. ‌Román, José. “Puerto Rico and a Constitutional Right to Vote.” Academic.udayton.edu, Apr. 2002.

6. Venator-Santiago, Charles. “Interest Convergence and the Extension of U.S. Citizenship to Puerto Rico.” University of Miami Race & Social Justice Law Review, vol. 9, no. 1, 7 Aug. 2019, p. 111, repository.law.miami.edu/umrsjlr/vol9/iss1/7/.

7. Vézina, Valérie. “Navigating Citizenship and National Identity in American Territories: Nationalism in American Samoa and Puerto Rico.” Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures, vol. 14, no. 2, 23 Sept. 2020, 10.21463/shima.14.2.12.

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Is Puerto Rico Part of USA

Puerto Rico is a Caribbean archipelago, consisting of one large main island and several much smaller islands. It is located between the Dominican Republic and the Virgin Islands, bordered by the Caribbean Sea to its south, and the Atlantic Ocean to its north. Its closest point to the USA is the southern tip of Florida, which is located around 1,100 miles to the northwest of the island.

Is Puerto Rico part of the United States of America?

Puerto Rico is designated by the U.S. Government as a commonwealth. In terms of real-world application, Puerto Rico is treated as an unincorporated organized territory of the United States with local self-government. 

• As such, the island of Puerto Rico is neither an independent country nor a U.S. state.

• However, Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens and are free to move and work in any of the 50 U.S. states.

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Puerto Rico: Quick Summary

(Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico)

Official Name:

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico

(Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico)

Capital City:

San Juan

Slightly less than 3 times the size of Rhode Island

Total Area (Size):

3,515 sq. miles (9,104 sq km)

Slightly less than 3 times the size of Rhode Island

Population:

3,142,779 (2021 est.)

Official Language:

Spanish and English

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Timeline of Puerto Rico

1898

Puerto Rico was annexed in 1898 under the US congressional doctrine of territorial incorporation (considered as belonging to, but not part of the U.S.)

I917

The Jones Act provided that Puerto Rico was a U.S. territory and their residents had U.S. citizenship

1946

President Truman appointed Jesus Toribio Pinero as the first native-born governor of Puerto Rico.

1950

U.S. Congress passed a law, granting Puerto Rico the power to write its own constitution

1952

The Estado Libre Asociado (ELA or the Associated Free State) of Puerto Rico was created

1992

Both Spanish and English were declared official languages

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Territory VS State

Citizens of Puerto Rico have American citizenship and passports and can freely travel or work in any of the 50 U.S. states.

The major difference between Puerto Rico’s unincorporated organized territory status and statehood is found in federal taxes and voting. Puerto Ricans are exempt from most federal taxes, but it’s also this lack of taxation that results in a lack of voting representation in either the house of the U.S. Congress or the right to vote in presidential elections. Puerto Ricans pay Social Security and Medicare tax but do not pay federal income tax.

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Old San Juan - Puerto Rico

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1898: Spanish-American War

In 1898, as a result of the Spanish-American War, Spain ceded Cuba, Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico to the United States of America as a consequence of the Treaty of Paris.

Over the following 20 years, acts allowed the US Government to have a more direct role in Puerto Rican affairs – at the same time, a public school system was established, and infrastructure such as sanitation networks and highways were constructed.

The 1917 Jones Act granted US Citizenship to all Puerto Ricans, allowing them to move freely between the island and the mainland. However, even though Puerto Rico is part of the USA, it does not have the same representation in the House of Congress that any one of its 50 states has. As an unincorporated territory of the USA, American citizens in Puerto Rico do not vote for the president or vice president – instead, the island is represented in the House of Congress by only one non-voting member.

Although, since 1952, the territory has elected a governor as its head of state, it has no voting representatives in the House of Congress.

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Old San Juan - Puerto Rico

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U.S. Territorial status

All U.S. territories are either categorized as:

1. Organized or unorganized

   • Do they have a territorial constitution?

2. Incorporated or unincorporated.

   • This means how much of the U.S. Constitution and federal laws are applied in the territory.

The U.S Virgin Islands, Guam, and Puerto Rico are all organized unincorporated territories. American Samoa, by comparison, is an unorganized, unincorporated territory. People born in America Samoa are U.S. nationals and are NOT U.S. Citizens.

Puerto Rico: Commonwealth

Puerto Rico is technically classified as a commonwealth and not a territory. However, in the real world, Puerto Rico’s commonwealth status is treated as an organized unincorporated territory. In theory, commonwealths have more local autonomy than territories, however, the application of such localized authority is mostly theoretical.

Puerto Rico’s Flag

The Puerto Rican flag was designed in 1892 by a group of rebels seeking independence for Puerto Rico during an anti-Spain revolt. The Puerto Rican flag was modeled after the Cuban flag, although both the Cuban and Puerto Rican flags were inspired by the U.S. flag. (Puerto Rico’s flag is the image on the left with the blue triangle).

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia and Puerto Rico. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

References & Sources for “Is Puerto Rico Part of the US?”

1. Blocher, Joseph, and G. Mitu Gulati. “Puerto Rico and the Right of Accession.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2017, 10.2139/ssrn.2988102. ‌

2. “How Are U.S. States, Territories, and Commonwealths Designated in the Geographic Names Information System?” Www.usgs.gov.

3. Hunter, Lawrence. “Leave No State or Territory Behind: Formulating a Pro-Growth Economic Strategy for Puerto Rico.” Www.ipi.org, 7 2003, www.ipi.org/ipi_issues/detail/leave-no-state-or-territory-behind-formulating-a-pro-growth-economic-strategy-for-puerto-rico.

4. Internal Revenue Service. “Topic No. 901 Is a Person with Income from Puerto Rico Required to File a U.S. Federal Income Tax Return? | Internal Revenue Service.” Www.irs.gov, 13 Mar. 2021, www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc901.

5. Mack, Doug. The Not-Quite States of America : Dispatches from the Territories and Other Far-Flung Outposts of the USA. New York, W.W. Norton & Company, 2018.

6. “Puerto Rico - the World Factbook.” Www.cia.gov, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/.

7. “Puerto Rico - the Debate over Political Status.” Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/place/Puerto-Rico/The-debate-over-political-status.

8. “Puerto Rican Culture.” Topuertorico.org, 2019, welcome.topuertorico.org/culture/.

9. “The Meaning of ‘Commonwealth.’” Puerto Rico Report, www.puertoricoreport.com/the-meaning-of-commonwealth/#.YH965B17now.

10. TUBS. “Deutsch: Lage von Puerto Rico in Nordamerika.” Wikimedia Commons, 26 Mar. 2011. (1st Image of Puerto Rico location)

11. “Unincorporated Territories of the United States.” Wikipedia, 16 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_territories_of_the_United_States.

Is South America Tropical

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According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, South America is comprised of 3 main climate types by land area, with 60.1% of the continent classified as tropical, which is the most of any continent.

However, neither Chile, Uruguay, nor Argentina is in the tropical zone.

• Uruguay and Argentina contain regions of subtropical, similar climatic conditions to those of the southern USA and Europe.

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Climatic Zones of South America

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Climatic Zones of South America: By Percentage

www.PedalChile.com (Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification)

Landmass By Climate Zone

Tropical

60.1%

24.1%

Temperate

(Including the subtropics)

24.1%

Arid

15%

Mostly high elevations of the Andes and parts of Patagonia

Polar

.8%

Mostly high elevations of the Andes and parts of Patagonia

_________

Total 100%

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Lu in Puerto Natales, Chile

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Tropical Climate Defined

Earth’s tropical zone lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The tropics are warm year-round, averaging 77°F to 82°F (25 to 28°C).

However, just because a region is located in the tropical zone doesn’t automatically qualify it as tropical. High-elevation mountainous areas, for example, are located throughout the tropics, yet the climate in these regions is anything but hot and humid.

According to the Köppen climate classification system, tropical climates must have a monthly average temperature of 64.4℉ (18℃) or higher year-round. This means that the average air temperature of ALL months must be warmer than 64℉ (18℃) to be classified as tropical.

South American Countries Tropical Area

www.PedalChile.com

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Although the majority of South America’s environment can easily be classed as tropical, parts of the continent are not. As one ventures further south into southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile, the climate becomes progressively sub-tropical, temperate, and even significantly cold.

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Perito Moreno Glacier, Argentina (Patagonia)

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Drier environments also become far more frequent. Southern Brazil, Paraguay, and northern Argentina have a rather sub-tropical climate – although seasons typically found in many temperate climates occur in this region, summers are often long and rather warm, whereas winters are generally mild, with frosts occurring on a rare basis.

Large areas of grassland cover the east of this region, with pockets of woodland occurring in places. However, the climate becomes drier the further west one travels – northern Argentina, for example, has a steppe-type environment.

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The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia - (World’s largest salt flat)

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Much of central and southern Argentina contains a temperate and colder environment, with rainfall levels decreasing the further south one travels. Both northern and central Argentina are covered in extensive steppe environments, with temperate woodlands rarely found. Southern Argentina and the south-eastern tip of Chile are referred to as Patagonia – this is a semi-arid plateau located between the Andes Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. With a rather dry and cold environment (winters are rather long the further south one travel), this part of South America is in stark contrast to the vast tropical rainforests and grasslands found to the north.

The Andes Mountains span a vast length of South America. The range stretches along the western side of the continent, from its far southern tip up to Colombia and Venezuela in the north. As expected, it traverses a wide range of different environments and has its own mountainous climate driven by its high altitude.

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Pico Cristóbal Colón. The highest peak in Colombia (Image Source: Olsen)

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The southern and south-western coast of Chile is rather cold, with heavy snowfall producing a heavily glaciated landscape. Large glaciers calve their way through the mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Much of the Patagonian Andes are rather cold and snowy, with large areas of beech forest covering the valleys within the mountain range.

Many areas between the Andes and the Pacific, located south of 38° latitude, are covered in dense temperate oceanic forests. However, both the Andes and the region immediately to their west become increasingly drier the further northwards one travel. The mountains themselves retain their cold temperature and dryness but become more tropical in climate as they venture into Peru, and remain that way until their demise.

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Valle De La Luna, II Región, Chile (Valley of the Moon in Chile’s Atacama desert)

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However, there is one last distinctive non-tropical climate of South America – the Atacama Desert. Covering much of northern Chile, and extending into south-western Bolivia, the Atacama is an incredibly hyper-arid region, some of which is considered to be the driest place on Earth. With a completely barren landscape filled with rocks and sand and a temperature that is comparatively low compared to similar latitudes elsewhere, this landscape is incredibly different from the vast tropical regions found on much of South America.

Although the coastal regions of the Atacama Desert can be rather warm (particularly in December, January, and February), the dry western sides of the Andes Mountains can be rather cold, particularly in the winter months.

5 Main Climate Types

A) Tropical B) Arid (desert/dry) C) Temperate D) Cold E) Polar

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Tropics area by Continent

Europe and Antarctica have 0% tropical climate (www.PedalChile.com)

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our resident badass. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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More articles from Pedal Chile

 References & Sources for “Is South America Tropical?”

1. Beck, Christoph & Grieser, Jürgen & Kottek, Markus & Rubel, Franz & Rudolf, B.. (2005). Characterizing Global Climate Change by means of Köppen climate classification.

2. Belda, M, et al. “Climate Classification Revisited: From Köppen to Trewartha.” Climate Research, vol. 59, no. 1, 4 Feb. 2014, pp. 1–13, pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a82b/1659b079d412e006f9de49e17aca9014b982.pdf, 10.3354/cr01204.

3. “Chapter 42. South America: Ecological Zones.” Www.fao.org, www.fao.org/3/y1997e/y1997e1b.htm.

4. “File:Tropical Climate (Köppen Climate Classification).Svg - Wikimedia Commons.” Wikimedia.org, 20 Feb. 2016, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tropical_climate_(K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification).svg. ‌(figure 1)

5. Olsen, Bryant. “Pico Cristóbal Colón.” Flickr, 2 Feb. 2017, www.flickr.com/photos/bryanto/32621470492.

6. Peel, M. C., et al. “Updated World Map of the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, vol. 11, no. 5, 11 Oct. 2007, pp. 1633–1644, 10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007.

7. Schipper, Jan. “Atlantic Coast Restingas.” One Earth, www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/atlantic-coast-restingas/.

8. Schipper, Jan. “Eastern South America: Eastern Coast of Brazil | Ecoregions | WWF.” World Wildlife Fund, www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/nt0144.

9. The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Amazon Rainforest | Plants, Animals, Climate, & Deforestation.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 23 Oct. 2017, www.britannica.com/place/Amazon-Rainforest.

10. “Tropics.” Wikipedia, 9 Mar. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics#/media/File:World_map_indicating_tropics_and_subtropics.png.

Can I Drink the Tap Water in Puerto Rico?

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Can I drink the tap water in Puerto Rico? 

• Puerto Rico’s tap water has elevated amounts of contaminants, organic micro-pollutants, heavy metals, and pesticides, resulting in water quality that is below minimum levels of recommended drinking standards.

• As a result, we ADVISE drinking BOTTLED WATER, boiling water, or adding chlorine for disinfection, followed by waiting 30 minutes before consuming water. AVOIDING ingesting municipal tap water is strongly suggested.

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The more and darker red, the worse the drinking water (Image Source: Mueller & Gasteyer)

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NRDC: worst water in USA

The Natural Resources Defense Council in a May 2017 brief, states:

“Puerto Rico suffers the worst rate of drinking water violations of any state or territory in the nation.”

“In 2015, 99.5 percent of Puerto Rico’s population was served by community water systems in violation of the Safe Drinking Water Act, and 69.4 percent of people on the island were served by water sources that violated SDWA’s health standards.”

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Keep in mind that this NRDC brief was issued four months before the 2017 hurricanes that devastated the island and ruined much of the water treatment infrastructure, resulting in drinking water that is even more contaminated and toxic.

CDC & Water Standards

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):

“Food and water standards in Puerto Rico are similar to those in the United States. Most travelers do not need to take special food or water precautions beyond what they normally do at home. However, travelers visiting rural or remote areas that are served by unregulated water sources such as private wells should take special precautions to ensure the safety of their drinking water.”

While the CDC says that the tap water in urban areas is safe to drink, numerous scientific studies and the Natural Resources Defense Council report that Puerto Rico has problematic municipal drinking water.

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(“PROTECT» PROTECT Study Shows Increased Levels of Toxic Chemicals in Drinking Water as a Result of Hurricanes Maria & Irma”)

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Overview: Puerto Rico Drinking water

Due to the island being part of the United States of America, Puerto Rico’s tap water is often said to be just as safe to drink as the municipal water on mainland USA. Various sources, from travel websites to TripAdvisor reviews, claim that health standards in general, in Puerto Rico, are often comparable to that of the United States, unlike most neighboring countries and territories. They often state that the quality of tap water on the island is of a good enough standard to drink, due to it being closely monitored by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

However, the amount of scientific data shows conclusively that the water quality is substandard and should be avoided.

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Tourists & drinking water

For tourists and visitors to the island, metal contamination is not a major concern – it takes a long period of time to develop side effects from lead and arsenic poisoning, as well as from the levels of chemical toxins seen in Puerto Rican tap water. Instead, with a third of the population being served by tap water containing harmful coliform bacteria, it is probably better to stay clear of the tap water, and instead consume bottled water, even if you are in an urban area.

Tap vs Bottled Water

Bottled water at the SuperMax in Puerto Rico.

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Tap water is regulated by the EPA through the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), which was passed by Congress in 1974. Bottled water is regulated by the FDA, which has lower restrictions and inspection regimens compared to the EPA-regulated municipal tap water.  

However, keep in mind that Puerto Rico has the worst drinking water in the United States, making the less stringently regulated bottled water the better choice while on the islands.  

Final Thought

For residents or tourists of Puerto Rico, it’s advisable and recommended to ingest bottled mineral water or treat your water with effective purification methods.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia and Puerto Rico. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

References & Sources

1. ‌Cohen, Erika, et al. “Quantifying the Role of Forested Lands in Providing Surface Drinking Water Supply for Puerto Rico.” Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-197-Addendum. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station., vol. 197Addendum, 2017, pp. 1–20, www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/54732.

2. ‌Exum, Natalie G., et al. “Correction To: Extreme Precipitation, Public Health Emergencies, and Safe Drinking Water in the USA.” Current Environmental Health Reports, vol. 5, no. 2, 26 May 2018, pp. 316–316, 10.1007/s40572-018-0202-3.

3. Harris, Amy. “Travel Safety in Puerto Rico.” Travel Tips - USA Today.

4. “Health Information for Travelers to Puerto Rico (U.S.) - Traveler View | Travelers’ Health | CDC.” Cdc.gov, CDC.gov, 2019, wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/destinations/traveler/none/puerto-rico.

5. Hernández, William J., et al. “Quantifying the Effects of Hurricanes Irma and Maria on Coastal Water Quality in Puerto Rico Using Moderate Resolution Satellite Sensors.” Remote Sensing, vol. 12, no. 6, 17 Mar. 2020, p. 964, 10.3390/rs12060964.

6. Hersher, Rebecca. “Puerto Rico’s Tap Water Often Goes Untested, Raising Fears about Lead Contamination.” NPR.org, 20 Sept. 2018.

7. ‌Hispania. “English: Orthographic Projection of Puerto Rico.” Wikimedia Commons, 1 Nov. 2009, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Puerto_Rico_(orthographic_projection).png. (Global image of Puerto Rico)

8. “Is It Safe to Drink the Water? - Puerto Rico Forum - Tripadvisor.” Www.tripadvisor.com.

9. “Is It Safe to Travel to Puerto Rico Now? Here’s What to Know - ViaHero.” Www.viahero.com.

10. ‌Lin, Yishan, et al. “Impact of Hurricane Maria on Drinking Water Quality in Puerto Rico.” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 54, no. 15, 8 July 2020, pp. 9495–9509.

11. Mueller, J.T., Gasteyer, S. The widespread and unjust drinking water and clean water crisis in the United States. Nat Commun 12, 3544 (2021).

12. ‌Nomads, World. “How to Stay Healthy and Safe in Puerto Rico.” Www.worldnomads.com, www.worldnomads.com/travel-safety/caribbean/puerto-rico/travel-health.

13. Pérez Ortiz, Yasmín, How Blockchain Technology Could Improve the Quality of Drinking Water in Puerto Rico (October 14, 2018). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3266166

14. “PROTECT» PROTECT Study Shows Increased Levels of Toxic Chemicals in Drinking Water as a Result of Hurricanes Maria & Irma.” Northeastern.edu, 2020, web.northeastern.edu/protect/protect-study-shows-increased-levels-of-toxic-chemicals-in-drinking-water-as-a-result-of-hurricanes-maria-irma/.

15. “Things to Do in Puerto Rico | Frommer’s.” Www.frommers.com, www.frommers.com/destinations/puerto-rico.

16. ‌“Threats on Tap: Drinking Water Violations in Puerto Rico.” NRDC, 10 May 2017, www.nrdc.org/resources/threats-tap-drinking-water-violations-puerto-rico. ‌

Nitrogen in Bike Tires

Few sports inspire more obsession with gear, components, and upgrades than bicycling. Racing cars, large commercial airliners, heavy machinery, performance motorcycles, and some Tour de France cyclists, all put pure nitrogen in their tires.

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Should I put nitrogen in my bike tires?

Replacing plain air, which is already 78% nitrogen, with 100% nitrogen, does NOT improve performance, reduce weight, nor provide any additional benefits to cyclists and bicycle riders.

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Components: Air vs Nitrogen

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Air

PedalChile.com

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Regular compressed air, from a bicycle pump or air compressor, is already nearly 80% nitrogen. Unlike racing cars and airliners, which have very advanced and expensive nitrogen filling stations, the typical nitrogen system that we have access to, will only fill your tires with 91 to 95% nitrogen.

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Components of Air

Nitrogen

78.08%

Oxygen

20.95%

Argon

.93%

Other Gases (like carbon dioxide)

.1%

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Inflation Leakage

MYTH: Nitrogen does not leak as quickly as compressed air, meaning, nitrogen maintains ideal tire pressure for longer.

FACT: All tires naturally lose pressure over time, regardless if they are filled with air or pure nitrogen. While it’s true that nitrogen permeates through rubber slower than standard air, over an entire year, the difference is only 1-PSI.

Also, if you experience a puncture, or if your tubeless tire is not set properly, both nitrogen and standard air will leak out at the same rate.

Temperature & Altitude Fluctuations

MYTH: Nitrogen-filled bicycle tires are not affected by temperature changes and maintain a constant PSI regardless of climate.

FACT: While it’s true that nitrogen maintains inflation pressure better than compressed air via temperature fluctuations, the environmental conditions need to be quite severe, such as those experienced by airplanes, and is one of the reasons that commercial airliners use pure nitrogen. However, it should be noted that it’s not uncommon for small aircrafts to use regular compressed air, and these airplanes are dealing with significantly more extreme climatic and mechanical conditions than your bicycle tires.

RULE of THUMB: PSI & TEMP

For every 10°F rise or fall in temperature, your tires lose 1-PSI with plain air. When using pure nitrogen, the difference is so small, you can’t even visually detect it on a graph.

Moisture & Wheel Weight

MYTH: Since nitrogen tires lack moisture, they are lighter than tires filled with compressed air.

FACT: Compressed air systems and bicycle pumps have moisture separators, limiting the amount of water vapor that is introduced into your tire. However, even if small amounts of water vapors were introduced into the tire, the effect is so tiny on performance, that even computation models conclude that the difference is negligible.

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Super-simple adjustments to your bike will make you more efficient

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Maintenance Cost & Convenience

MYTH: The lack of internal oxygen and moisture reduces tire deterioration, eliminating rust and corrosion on the rim.

FACT: While the above statement is true, the larger issue is what is happening to the outside of the wheel. UV, pollution, road salt, rain, puddles, mud, dust, and grime all contribute exponentially more to the wearing of parts than the internal amount of oxygen.

Cost

Unlike air, which is free, and readily available with a portable pump, you have to pay at least 5 bucks for every fill-up when using nitrogen. While this isn’t hugely expensive, it does add up after punctures, and since nitrogen still escapes from the tire, you still need regular checks and top-offs, plus the added hassles of finding or buying the nitrogen system.

Safety

Passenger airliners weighing over 75,000 pounds and Formula One cars, for example, use pure nitrogen in their tires. Both of these machines create large amounts of heat, and in the case of airplanes, do so at altitudes of 30,000+ feet. In the event of a crash, these 100% nitrogen tires do not have any oxygen to feed a potential fire.

Final Thought

Even though bicycle technology has advanced over the years, your bike has nothing in common with Formula One cars or airliners. Sticking to plain air might be boring, but it’s convenient, free, and predictable.

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This is an scientifically validated way to go faster and ONLY Available here

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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Related articles from Pedal Chile

1. Can I used WD-40 on my bicycle chain?

2. Is a Bike-Fit worth the money?

Sources & References

1. “Air Composition.” Ucar.edu, 2019, www.eo.ucar.edu/basics/wx_1_b_1.html.

2. ‌Ben. “Is Filling Bicycle Tires with Nitrogen Worth It?” EBike Pursuits, 18 Mar. 2020, ebikepursuits.com/is-filling-bicycle-tires-with-nitrogen-worth-it/.

3. Bertorelli, Paul. “Nitrogen Tires Unnecessary for Small Aircraft.” Aviation Consumer, 22 Dec. 2015, www.aviationconsumer.com/maintenance/nitrogen-tires-unnecessary-for-small-aircraft/.

4. Daws, John. “Nitrogen Inflation for Passenger Car and Light Truck Tires.” Tire Science and Technology, vol. 39, no. 2, June 2011, pp. 125–160, 10.2346/1.3593787.

5. “Top 4 Myths vs Facts about Using Nitrogen to Inflate Car Tires.” Www.aaa.com.

6. Vangelder, Kirk T. Fundamentals of Automotive Maintenance and Light Repair. Burlington, Ma, Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2020.‌

What Is a Berm: MOUNTAIN BIKING

A BERM is a smooth banked outside edge of a curved section of trail, usually man-made. Smooth berms allow riders to “rail” turns without slowing down like the banking turns of NASCAR tracks. 

• More simply, a BERM is a banked or angled corner

Berm vs Off-camber

• BERM = positive camber

  • A corner that is higher on the outside than the inside. The trail will slope down from the outer edge to the inner one

• Off-Camber = negative camber

  • A corner that is higher on the inside than the outside so the trail slopes down from the inner edge to the outer edge

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A corner with positive camber is called a berm and the opposite of a berm is known as off-camber.

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What is Camber?

Camber refers to the difference in height between the two edges of a trail which creates a banked riding surface.

• Positive camber is a banked turn and is easier to ride than an off-camber trail or corner as gravity works with you.

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Scientifically formulated to go faster

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Quick Summary

• A berm is a steeply banked corner which it’s possible to take at speed. A singletrack with many berms can be described as 'bermy'

• Off-camber is the opposite of a berm. The slope hinders cornering at speed as opposed to berms, which makes turning at speed easier and faster (aka more fun)

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

References and Sources

1. “Camber vs Berm - What’s the Difference?” WikiDiff, 3 Nov. 2016, wikidiff.com/camber/berm.

2. Hurst, Robert. The Art of Mountain Biking : Singletrack Skills for All Riders. Guilford, Conn., Falconguides, 2012.

3. ‌Lopes, Brian, et al. Mastering Mountain Bike Skills. Champaign (Il) ; Windsor (On) ; Leeds (Ls), Human Kinetics, 2017.

4. “Mountain Biking Glossary - Forestry and Land Scotland.” Forestryandland.gov.scot, forestryandland.gov.scot/visit/activities/mountain-biking/glossary.

5. “MTB Techniques - the Mountain Bike Skills and Technique Resource.” Www.mtbtechniques.co.uk, www.mtbtechniques.co.uk/AdvancedOffCamber.html.

6. Netting, Dan. “Camber on Race Tracks: How Does It Affect Us as Riders?” Life at Lean, 18 Nov. 2013, lifeatlean.com/camber-how-it-affects-us/.

7. Trevitt, Andrew. “Riding Skills Series: Camber and Elevation.” Cycle World, 3 Oct. 2011. LINK

Is My Bike Saddle Too Narrow

Your saddle supports your sit bones - the ends of your pelvic bones that protrude when you sit down.

View fullsize

Your two sit bones or the Ischial Tuberosity

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If your bicycle saddle is too narrow then your sit bone or ischial tuberosity will extend over the side of the saddle, placing your weight on the soft tissue of your genitals.

• In the figure below, notice how this seat is too narrow. Only 1 of the 2 ischial tuberosities is resting on the seat. As a result, the cyclist is being supported by his pubic or genital region

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View fullsize

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Saddle Width & Cycling Position

Riding posture has a huge effect on your saddle width and saddle shape. As you go from riding in an upright, cruiser-like posture to an aerodynamic racing posture, your pelvis tilt changes. This alters the interaction of how your sit bones are positioned on your saddle.

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As you can see, the riding posture changes the position of the cyclist's pelvis.

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While sitting upright, the majority of your weight is supported by the tip of your sit bones. As your pedaling intensity increases and your riding posture drops, your weights shift from the outside of your sit bones to the inside of these bones and also onto your pubic bone.

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View fullsize

In the above image, the majority of your weight while sitting upright is placed near the edges of your sit bones. In a dropped, racing posture, the majority of your weight shift to your pubic bone. 

• All the postures that fall within these two extremes will place your weight somewhere in-between these two contact points.

• The more forward-leaning, the narrow the seat needs to be as your inner sit bones or pubic bones support your weight.

Wide cruiser saddle compared to a typical road bicycle saddle

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Wide Leisurely Seats

• The reason cruiser-style bicycles have large, wide seats, is because the upright posture places the weight on the widest parts of the ischial tuberosities or sit bones.

Narrow Racing Saddles

• Narrow racing saddles are narrow, since this aggressive posture places the majority of the rider’s weight on the inside of the sit bones or even further down, onto the pubic bone.

• Not only does a racing posture change the saddle width, but also the shape and pressure relief areas (cut-outs)

Signs Your Saddle Is Too Narrow

• Pain in the groin region as your delicate areas are supporting your weight as opposed to your ischial tuberosities.

• If super narrow, then you will actually be falling off the saddle or will try and sit further back where the saddle is at its widest.

Riding styles & final thought

Bicycle saddle width is based upon the width of your sit bones and also your torso angle, which is determined by your riding style. This is all predicated on the idea that your saddle is positioned correctly, meaning your bike settings are optimal for you and your riding style.

A cyclist who rides

1. Cruiser bike

2. Mountain bike

3. Road racing bicycle

All 3 of these bicycles, even though it’s the same rider, will have DIFFERENT saddles since the torso angle all differ.

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Want to ride easier??

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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Sources & References

1. Bressel, Eadric, et al. “Influence of Bicycle Seat Pressure on Compression of the Perineum: A MRI Analysis.” Journal of Biomechanics, vol. 40, no. 1, Jan. 2007, pp. 198–202, 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2005.11.017.

2. Cheung, Stephen S, and Mikel Zabala. Cycling Science. Champaign, Il, Human Kinetics, 2017.

3. DBCLS, BodyParts3D is made by. “English: Ischial Tuberosity. Shown in Red.” Wikimedia Commons, 16 Feb. 2015, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ischial_tuberosity_02-1_posterior_ (Figure 2 - left photo & figure 4).

4. Lopes, Brian, et al. Mastering Mountain Bike Skills. Champaign (Il) ; Windsor (On) ; Leeds (Ls), Human Kinetics, 2017.

5. Lukelahood. “English: Outline of Skin and Skeleton of Human Body.” Wikimedia Commons, 28 Dec. 2020, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_body_template.png. (Figure 1).

6. Moore, Katherine. “How to Choose the Right Bike Saddle for You.” BikeRadar, 3 Sept. 2018, www.bikeradar.com/advice/buyers-guides/how-to-choose-the-best-saddle/.

7. “Saddle Ergonomics Explained.” SQlab, sqlab-usa.com/pages/saddle-ergonomics-explained.

8. “Sit Bones Width Measurement and Bike Saddle Selection.” BikeFit, 15 Oct. 2019, blog.bikefit.com/sit-bones-width-measurement-and-bike-saddle-selection/.

Cheapest Countries in South America to Visit

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“Travel” and “cheap” generally don’t go together. Like most things in life, you get what you pay for. Traveling is no exception.

While countries differ in exchange rates, inflation, cost of living, and purchasing power - contrary to popular belief, there is no country in the world where you can live like Royalty for $100 a day, let alone $10.

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Lonely Planet, one of the most respected economical travel guides on the Planet, provides daily budgets for each country. Perú, for example, is budgeted by Lonely Planet at $52 USD per day, which includes:

1. Sharing a room & bathroom in a hostel

2. Cooking meals in the hostel kitchen and eating street food

3. Visiting local, low-key historical sites

What is NOT included in the $52 USD (For the Perú example)

1. No Alcoholic drinks, such as wine tastings, breweries, nights out, or even just having a casual adult beverage

2. No tours or major sites (in this Perú example……….no Machu Picchu, Lake Titicaca, or Nazca Lines)

3. No eloquent/fine dining experiences

4. No hotel rooms…only shared hostel rooms

5. No group tours.

   • (Only self-guided tours where you hitch hike to/from attraction)

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This article ranks the countries of South America, from cheapest to most expensive, for travelers and tourists. All prices are current as of 2021 and are in United States Dollars (USD).

In addition to my rankings, I have provided Lonely Planet’s budget as a reference point. Along with their mid-range budget, which is more realistic for those looking to visit popular attractions, dine-out, drink, all while still maintaining a relatively frugal budget.

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However, keep in mind that if you actually want to travel, and see the famous attractions that motivated you to explore in the first place, that costs money. With that said, I have organized the countries from cheapest to most expensive.

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Average Cheapest Daily Cost To Travel by Country (according to Lonely Planet)

PedalChile.Com (Data Sourced from Lonely Planet)

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Ranking The South American Countries By Travel Costs

Cheapest countries to budget travel in South America based on Lonely Planet costs. 1 is the cheapest with 14 being most the expensive. The number on the right is the daily cost for budget travel in that respective country (USD).

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Lowest Daily Travel Cost

PedalChile.com (data sourced from Lonely Planet - USA is $150 for comparison)

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1) Venezuela (cheapest)

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The capital city of Venezuela - Caracas

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Venezuela is not only the cheapest country in South America but it’s one of the cheapest countries you will ever visit, regardless of continent. However, this is assuming you pay with cash and exchange it for the bolívar or US dollars in the black market. If you pay by credit card or use ATMs, you will be charged ruinous official exchange rates.

Venezuela has 43 national parks and over 2,600 km of coastline along the Caribbean coast, with these beaches widely considered the best in South America.

However, Venezuela has the highest rate of inflation in the world, and prices are extremely vulnerable to change. Corruption, crime, civil unrest, inflation, kidnapping, arbitrary arrest, poor health services, and low quality of food, amenities, & services is rampant, which is why Venezuela is generally not talked about when visiting South America and the U.S. State Department says:

“Do not travel to Venezuela due to crime, civil unrest, poor health infrastructure, kidnapping, arbitrary arrest and detention of U.S. citizens, and COVID-19.”

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Cheapest daily cost of Venezuela according to Lonely Planet

• Budget traveler: $15 per person/day (estimated)

• Budget Lodging = $5

• Dinner Main = $2

Additional COSTS

• Coffee at a coffee shop = 1 dollar

• Beer in a bar = 1.50 to 2 dollars

• Local dinner = starting at $3

• Liter of petroleum = 5 cents

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2) Suriname

Dutch is the official language in the smallest country in South America, which was a Dutch plantation colony, until gaining its independence in 1975. Most of the country consists of an almost uninhabited intact Amazon jungle where Indigenous tribes still live. It’s no wonder this country is known as “South America’s Wild West.”

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The historical district of Paramaribo, the capital and largest city of Suriname

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Unemployment, political instability, and inflation make both Venezuela and Suriname the CHEAPEST COUNTRIES in South America to travel.

• Both of these countries are in their own budget category as they are significantly cheaper than the rest of South America and are as cheap as any country in the world.

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Cheapest daily costs of Suriname according to Lonely Planet

• Budget traveler: Less than $18

• Budget hotel room: $10 to $14

• Chicken & veggie roti: $1.75

*Holiday/party traveler daily cost: $18 to $43

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3) colombia

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Bogotá, Colombia - The capital and largest city in Colombia is also the most expensive

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Bordering the north-western coasts of South America, Colombia contains many beautiful Caribbean beaches. As well as the capital city of Bogotá, both the vibrant city of Medellin and the beautiful fishing town of Cartagena are well-worth visiting for their sights and atmosphere. However, they are also rather cheap places to visit.

In Colombia, a double room in a mid-priced hotel will typically cost between $25 and $37 per night, and $9 on average for a hostel bed. In terms of food, a three-course meal in a modest restaurant will set you back at around $10 per person.

Desierto de la Tatacoa, Colombia

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Transport is rather cheap in Colombia, with the eight-hour bus journey between the cities of Bogotá and Salento costing around $16.

Although many of the museums in Medellin are free to enter, some attractions may have an entrance fee of around $5. Other attractions in Colombia may cost more – for example, a paragliding session in San Gil will cost $17 for a short flight, but is definitely worth the price.

• Group tour of coffee farm = starts at about $50

• Day tour of Tatacoa Desert = $200+

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Cheapest daily cost of Colombia according to Lonely Planet:

• Budget traveler: Less than $28 per person/day

• Set meal: $2 to $4

• Dorm bed: $7 to $13

• Main dish in decent local restaurant: $5.50 to $8

*Holiday backpacker daily cost: $28 to $70

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Medellin, Colombia

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As in every country, the prices can vary dramatically from region to region.

For example, Lonely Planet’s daily cost of Medellín is double that of Colombia in general:

• Budget traveler: $56 per person/day

• Dorm bed: $8 to $18

• Set meal: $3 to $4

• Beer in a bar: $1.50

*Holiday or party backpacker daily cost: $56 to $97

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4) Paraguay

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Asunción is Paraguay’s capital and largest city, and also the most expensive city

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Situated in the heart of South America, Paraguay may feel like it is away from the well-trodden tourist track at times, but it is because of this that partly gives the country its charm. It is also rather affordable – although prices for a mid-range hotel room may start at a relatively higher $40 per night, a hostel bed will set you back around $10 per night.

With a three-course meal in a mid-range restaurant priced at around $10 per person, you should be able to get by while traveling the country on a frugal backpacker budget of around $30 each on low-key days.

However, some of the attractions are fairly expensive, with a three-hour private sightseeing tour of Asunción starting at around $60 per person, although the price does include entry to various sites and museums, and a private guide.

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Cheapest daily cost of Paraguay according to Lonely Planet:

• Budget travel: $50 per person/day

• Bed in a hostel: $12

• Fast Food meal: $3.75

• Standard dinner: $12

*Classic Backpacker/Traveler Daily Cost: $50 to $175

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5) Bolivia

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The Salar de Uyuni, amid the Andes in Bolivia - the world’s largest salt flat

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Bolivia is known for having very cheap accommodation and food costs, and is often referred to by travel guides as one of the cheapest, safe countries in South America.

With accommodation costs around $25 per night in a basic hotel, and $14 for a night in a hostel bed, it is the country to visit if you want to save money. Like many South American countries, it has wealthier parts and poorer areas, and it is within relatively poor areas such as Potosi and Oruro where you will find cheaper food and accommodation. Of course, it is often the case that the poorer a neighborhood is, the less safe that it is likely to be.

• Standard tour of the world's largest salt flat (Salar de Uyuni) for 3 days/2 night = $160

• Lake Titicaca - between Peru and Bolivia (12,500 feet or 3,808 meters) = One day minimal tour starts at $20

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La Paz - Bolivia, is the highest administrative capital in the world at 11,942 feet or 3,640 meters

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Daily cost of Bolivia according to Lonely Planet:

• Budget travel: $29 per person/day

• Dorm/budge bed: $6 to $11

• Simple meal: $7

*Classic party backpacker/traveler daily cost: $29 to $95

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6) Argentina

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Buenos Aires, Argentina - Argentina’s capital and largest city is also the country’s most expensive. This city is known as the “Paris of the South” for its European style of architecture and legacy

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Argentina is the 8th largest country in the world and the most visited country in South America. Buenos Aires, the capital city, is the main entry point for visitors and is home to the Tango dance. Travelers to Buenos Aires will find this city comparable in price to Montreal, Canada.

Argentina is fairly expensive by Latin America standards, as is most of South America, however, Argentina is still cheaper than Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and is comparable to Peru in cost. Like many Latin American countries, the economy is unpredictable, so the Argentine Peso can fluctuate dramatically compared to other currencies.

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Daily cost of Argentina according to Lonely Planet:

• Less than $60 USD per day per person

• Dorm bed: $15 - 22

• Cheap main dish: less than $11

*Realistic Backpacker/Traveler Daily Cost: $60 to $200

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7) Peru

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Street food in Cusco, Perú

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Peru is another rather cheap South American country, with an underrated capital city – Lima – that is significantly cheaper than the large cities of neighboring Brazil. With prices for a standard double hotel room starting at $25 per night (and a hostel bed priced at around $10/night), accommodation costs are rather easy on the wallet. A three-course meal at a mid-range restaurant costs around $8 per person, whereas street food is considerably cheaper.

Travel costs also tend to be rather cheap, with an 18-hour bus ride between the cities of Lima and Cusco starting at $50. Tourist attractions are rather good value for money, with museum entrances within the country being priced at around $10 per ticket.

However, visiting mega tourist attractions, such as Machu Picchu are considerably more expensive:

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Cost of Machu Picchu

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The Inca ruins of Machu Picchu in Peru

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• Machu Picchu entrance tickets ~ $50 each

• Round trip train ticket from Cuzco to Aguas Calientes (town near Machu Picchu) = $100 minimum

• Round trip bus ticket from train station to the entrance of the Machu Picchu ruins = $24 each

  • Totaling $174 (minimum) and that’s before lodging, food, taxi ride to train station, travel expenses to Cuzco, tour guides, etc.

Also, keep in mind that prices are much higher for the multi-day Machu Picchu Inca Trail trek – starting at $500 per person – but this is a lifetime experience that you will likely never forget.

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Cheapest daily cost of Peru according to Lonely Planet:

• Budget travel: Less than $52 per day/person

• Set lunches: Less than $4

• Bed in dorm or cheap hotel room: $7 to 45 USD

• Nice dinner: $17+

*Realistic daily traveling cost = $52 to $176

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8) Ecuador

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Quito, Ecuador (South America)

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Located on South America’s north-western coast, Ecuador is also known for its rather low accommodation, food and transport costs. Double rooms in a mid-range hotel tend to start at $20 per night, although basic private rooms can cost as little as $15. A night in a hostel bed typically costs around $12.

Food is also generally rather cheap. Being a fairly small and compact country, transport costs are rather low, with a four-hour bus journey from Quito – the country’s capital – to the coastal city of Guayaquil costing around $14.

Attractions also tend to be rather cheap in Ecuador as well. Museum entry fees are typically priced at around $5-10 per person, with hiking trips to volcanoes often starting at around $40 per person. A journey on the amazing Devil’s Nose Train also start at $40 for a ticket.

• The Galápagos Islands, which is a province of Ecuador, is significantly more expensive than mainland Ecuador

  • Galápagos national park = fee is $100

  • $20 fee when departing the island via airplane

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Cheapest daily cost of Ecuador according to Lonely Planet

• Budget traveler: $40

• Budget guesthouses: $10–20 per person

• Set lunches: $2.50–3.50

• Dinner in good restaurant: $10 to $15 each

*Party/holiday backpacker/traveler daily cost = $40 to $100

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9) Brazil

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Rio de Janeiro is the second most expensive city in South America and the most expensive city in Brazil. (Brasília is the capital city of Brazil and NOT Rio de Janeiro)

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3 of the top 5 most expensive cities in South America are located in Brazil, however, this country is larger than the mainland USA and takes up half of the landmass in South America.

Brazil has an incredibly diverse culture and many famous attractions, such as Iguazu Falls, Christ the Redeemer Statue, Brazilian Carnival, Fernando de Noronha archipelago, and the Amazon Rain Forest.

For budget travelers, the best time to visit Brazil is during the winter, which starts in May and runs to October (seasons reversed in Southern Hemisphere). Brazil has no major festivals during these months and as a result, tourism is at its lowest as are the prices. Rio de Janeiro is always relatively expensive and is similar in costs to those traveling in Toronto (Canada) or Wellington, New Zealand.

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Cheapest daily cost of Brazil according to Lonely Planet

• Budget traveler: Less than $36

• Dorm Bed: $7 to 15

• Cheap lunch: Around $3

• Dinner in average restaurant: $15 to $30 each

*Classic Backpacker/Traveler Daily Cost = $36 to $71

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Brasília - capital of Brazil

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Cheapest daily cost of Brasília, Brazil’s capital city, according to Lonely Planet, which is 35% more expensive than Brazil in general:

• Budget Traveler: $51

• Double room in a budget hotel: $30 to $34

• Food court meal: $3.25 to $6

*Classic Backpacker/Traveler Daily Cost = $52 to $103

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10) Chile

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Santiago, the capital city of Chile and the 3rd most expensive city in South America

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Although Chile is more expensive than nearly every South American country, you will find some parts of the country rather poor, other places (typically toward the south of the country in Patagonia) are relatively modern, remote, and therefore fairly costly and comparable in price to mainstream areas in the United States and Europe.

Although prices for a decent-standard hotel room start at around $40 per night, a hostel bed usually costs within the $6-20 range. Meals are generally more expensive, at around $24 for a three-course meal in a standard restaurant, whereas a six-hour bus journey from Santiago to Concepción costs around $15.

However, bear in mind that Chile is an incredibly long country, extending around 2,600 miles (4,200 km) north to south, so traveling by airplane may be cheaper if you are covering a long distance. Most tourist attractions cost under $10, but the entry fee to some of the more spectacular places – such as the Torres del Paine National Park – will set you back $29 in the high season, and around $15 during the low season.

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Cheapest daily cost of Chile according to Lonely Planet

• Budget traveler: Less than $90 per day/person

• Cheap Dorm Bed: $13

• Budget restaurant: Around $7

• Dinner in decent restaurant: $11 (starting)

*Realistic backpacker/tourist daily cost = $90 to $110

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Keep in mind that Chile is the longest country in the world and prices can vary significantly between regions. The daily costs above from Lonely Planet are for Chile in general, below, I have the daily costs for the capital city of Santiago, which are significantly less expensive than Chile’s Patagonia.

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Chile - The world’s longest country from North to South

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Cheapest daily cost of SANTIAGO, Chile according to Lonely Planet

• Budget Travel = $34 per person/day

• Dorm bed at hostel = $10 to $20

• Small typical lunch (empanadas) = $2.75

*Classic Backpacker/Traveler Daily Cost = $35 - $103

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11) Uruguay

Uruguay is South America’s 2nd smallest, and also the most expensive of the popular tourist countries. Situated between Brazil and Argentina, this country has the lowest rate of poverty and the highest life expectancy in Latin America. The only regions in Latin America that are more expensive to travel, are French Guiana, Guyana, and parts of Patagonia.

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Montevideo, Uruguay has the highest cost of living of all South American cities

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• Montevideo is the most expensive city in South America and is the only city in the Southern Hemisphere to be among the 100 most expensive cities in the world.

• Montevideo is comparable in price to Atlanta, Georgia (USA) and is more expensive than Dallas, Texas.

One of the reasons the prices are so high in Uruguay is because Uruguay's sales tax is 22%, compared to 0 - 7.25% in the USA. 

• Highest sales tax in South America

• Relatively expensive restaurants

  • Dining out in Uruguay isn’t as expensive as Canada or the United States of America, but it’s the most expensive of any Latin American country at USD 10.50 per person, just for an “inexpensive” meal.

  • The Chivito, Uruguay's classic steak sandwich, and the national dish cost about $10

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Cheapest daily cost of Uruguay according to Lonely Planet

• Budget traveler: Less than $75 per day

• Dorm Bed: $15 - 35

• Set price lunch (Menu ejecutivo ): $10 to $15

• Dinner in a decent restaurant: $25 starting

*Realistic Backpacker/Traveler Daily Cost = $75 to $175

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12) French Guiana

French Guiana is an overseas department of France and is a member of the European Union (EU), and as such, its official currency is the Euro, making this French territory, the most expensive region in all of Latin America to live in.

• French Guiana’s official name is Territorial Collectivity of French Guiana

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View from the capital city of Cayenne, French Guiana (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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This remote department of France is the least visited region in South America. 90% of this territory is inaccessible Amazon jungle. The remaining 10% is an eerie mix of prison-camp history, swamped in rainforest humidity. Add to the mix that this is the most expensive area in Latin America and you get a formula for few visitors.

Emperor Napolean III and subsequent French leaders sent French prisoners here as these prisons were considered escape-proof.

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French Guiana is 40% more expensive than France since nearly everything is imported from mainland France.

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Cheapest daily cost of French Guiana according to Lonely Planet

• Budget Traveler: Less than $119

• Hammock in an open air hut: $12

• Cheap meal at the central market: $5

*Realistic Backpacker/Traveler Daily Cost = $119 to $209

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13) Guyana (most expensive)

One of the least visited but the most expensive country to visit in South America is Guyana. The cost of living here is low, however, the costs to tourists are quite high. This former British colony is the only country in South America with English as the official language and is known for its pristine access to nature and wildlife.

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Kaieteur Falls, Guyana (South America) - Kaieteur is the highest single drop waterfall in the world at 741 feet or 226 meters

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The main reason people come to Guyana is to see Kaieteur Falls, which is the highest single-drop waterfall in the world. The cheapest way to see the falls is by plane and that will set you back about $200 each.

The most affordable lodging in Georgetown (capital) will set you back nearly $30 per night and taking a minibus along the coast starts at ~$45. However, the museums in Georgetown are free.

Both French Guiana and Guyana are expensive. If you are traveling with a budget, you will most likely have to forgo visiting the Guianas.

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Cheapest daily cost of Guyana according to Lonely Planet

• Budget Traveler: $144 per person/day (or less)

• Budget hotel: $29

• Decent restaurant meal: $10

  • Street snack: $1

*Realistic Backpacker/Traveler Daily Cost = $144 to $288

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Patagonia

It’s impossible to talk about South America without mentioning Patagonia.

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Lu (staff member) at Torres del Paine, Chile’s Patagonia

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Even though Patagonia isn’t a country or territory, it’s one of the most visited regions in Latin America. This picturesque area, which is located in both southerly Argentina and Chile is expensive, even by North American and European standards.

One of the reasons that Chile and Argentina’s daily cost is quite high, is due to the high prices of Patagonia. Anything less than $100 per day in this part of the world is just roughing it.

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READ: Where/What is Patagonia

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our resident badass. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. Valentina has traveled to over 100 countries and is a native of Chile.

• Favorite season: Austral Summer

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Can a bike seat be too soft

Image Source: Bere, P. et al. 2019

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“It seems counterintuitive, but a good saddle is a hard saddle. ”

— Charles Haine

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Your sit bones, or ischial tuberosities, are designed to bear your weight when seated. Bicycle saddles are designed to provide a contact at these two points which protects the soft and delicate areas in-between your “sit bones.”

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If a bicycle seat/saddle is too soft or squishy, your sit bones will compress into the seat, pushing your seat into delicate areas and compressing into your nerves - possibly causing numbness, pain, and chafing.

• This is why bicycle seats are firm with minimal to no padding.

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Too much padding = “bottoming out”

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“Cycling on a gel saddle resulted in 37% more loss of penile oxygenation than cycling on an unpadded saddle.”

— From the book "Chronic Pelvic Pain and Dysfunction"

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This seat is also too narrow for Skully (image above). But notice how the seat is pushed up into this cyclist’s delicate parts?? With too soft of a seat, the padding pushes up between your sit bones into sensitive body areas and can pinch nerves.

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A saddle with too much padding causes your sit bones to sink into the saddle. As you sink into the seat, your delicate areas will press into the padding and compress nerves.

• A bike seat is designed to support your weight by providing a firm foundation for your sit bones. A saddle with proper width and firmness essentially lifts you up. This “lifting” keeps your delicate areas elevated, instead of pressing into the seat and compressing nerves.

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You Don’t want your lady or boy parts smooshed

A female and her sit bones. If these sit bones compress into the seat then her girl parts will get smooshed into the seat, possibly go numb, or be subject to chafing or saddles sores. All are very uncomfortable (Image Source: Adapted from Wikimedia Commons)

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Saddles: Gel, Foam & No-padding

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“It seems logical and it is tempting to get a saddle with lots of squishy gel, but these saddles are not as comfortable as they look. The gel moves around and can pinch, and cheap gel often breaks down quickly. Saddles that offer firm support where you need it are better in the long run”

— From the book "IronFit Triathlon Training"

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Generally, saddles come in 3 levels of firmness:

• Gel

• Foam padding

• No Padding

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Four different bicycle seats tested in the study; A) narrow, heavily padded seat; B) narrow seat with medium padding and V-shaped groove in the saddle nose; C) wide unpadded leather seat; D) women's special wide seat with medium padding and no saddle nose. (Image Source & Text: Schwarzer et al.)

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The above image is from a 2002 study published in European Urology, which is the official medical journal of the European Association of Urology. The researchers looked at the 4 saddles types above and it’s effects on penile oxygen.

The results:

1) The nose-less saddle performed the best

Saddle D (nose-less) performed the best with minimal perineal compression

• The nose of the saddle allows you to control the bike with your legs. Nose-less saddles are hard to maneuver as you lose this ability

2) The non-padded leather saddle = 2nd best

Saddle C, the unpadded leather seat, performed 2nd best, among the 4 saddles.

• This firm, non-padded leather saddle had less groin compression and better oxygen flow than both saddle A and B

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The leather, non-padded saddle outperformed the medium-padded saddle (B) by 13.5% and the heavily-padded saddle (A) by 26%. However the noseless saddled performed 103% better than the leather saddle and 121% better than the heavily padded bike seat.

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Final Thought

You have four layers between your saddle and sit bones:

1. Chamois (cycling shorts)

2. Skin

3. Fat

4. Muscles

The more you ride and get into cycling shape, your muscle tissue gets firmer. This will provide you with more muscle mass between your sit bones and seat.

If you don’t cycle much or are just starting, these “soft” muscles will become uncomfortable. Assuming your saddle is the proper width, the best saddle for riding is a hard and firm platform that supports your ischial tuberosities (sit bones) and keeps your lady/boy parts from being smooshed and compressed.

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Looking for a professional BikeFitting??

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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Sources & References for “Saddle Too Soft”

1. Bere, P., Raul Rozsos, C. Dudescu and C. Neamtu. “MANUFACTURING METHOD FOR BICYCLE SADDLE FROM CARBON/EPOXY COMPOSITE MATERIALS.” (2019).

2. Chaitow, Leon, et al. Chronic Pelvic Pain and Dysfunction : Practical Physical Medicine : Towards an Ecology of Occupation-Based Practices. Edinburgh, Churchill Livingstone, 2012.

3. Cheung, Stephen S, and Mikel Zabala. Cycling Science. Champaign, Il, Human Kinetics, 2017.‌

4. Chen, Yi-Lang, and Yi-Nan Liu. “Optimal protruding node length of bicycle seats determined using cycling postures and subjective ratings.” Applied ergonomics vol. 45,4 (2014): 1181-6.

5. Fink, Melanie, and Don Fink. IronFit Triathlon Training for Women : Training Programs and Secrets for Success in All Triathlon Distances. Guilford, Connecticut, Lyons Press, An Imprint Of Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.

6. Haine, Charles. The Urban Biking Handbook : The DIY Guide to Building, Rebuilding, Tinkering With, and Repairing Your Bicycle for City Living. Beverly, Mass., Quarry Books, C, 2011.

7. Jeong, SJ., Park, K., Moon, JD. et al. Bicycle saddle shape affects penile blood flow. Int J Impot Res 14, 513–517 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijir.3900929

8. Partin, Sarah N et al. “Les lanternes rouges: the race for information about cycling-related female sexual dysfunction.” The journal of sexual medicine vol. 11,8 (2014): 2039-47. doi:10.1111/jsm.12606

9. Petersen, Grant, and Retsu Takahashi. Just Ride : A Radically Practical Guide to Riding Your Bike. New York, Workman Pub, 2012.

10. Schwarzer, Ulrich, et al. “Cycling and Penile Oxygen Pressure: The Type of Saddle Matters.” European Urology, vol. 41, no. 2, Feb. 2002, pp. 139–143, 10.1016/s0302-2838(01)00028-8.

Countries with spiciest food

The Top 11 Countries with the Spiciest Food

Spicy food is popular in many different countries and cultures around the world. Not only do different spices and peppers taste amazing, but many studies have also shown that spicy food can have many health benefits, including reducing the risk of developing cancer and heart disease, helping with weight loss, and possibly improving digestion.

This article lists the 11 countries in the world which have the spiciest food - the data for this article has been sourced from several studies that have researched traditional cookbooks and the amount of capsaicin and piperine in each dish.

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Red peppers vary by hotness, depending on the amount of capsaicin in them

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In general, capsaicin (from red peppers) and piperine (from black peppers) are the major chemical constituents responsible for the ‘burning’ sensation experienced in your mouth:

• Capsaicin (from red peppers) gives chili peppers their intensity or “hotness” when ingested or comes in contact with your skin

• Piperine is the major chemical responsible for the ‘burning’ sensation in black peppers

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 11) South Africa

South Africa gained Independence in 1961, after being under the colonial rule of the Dutch, German, French, and British since 1652. Because of this, South Africa cuisine is heavily influenced by various heritages. Today, the food is heavily influenced by India, since during the British colonial rule, many workers came over from India, who brought various spices, which have entered the South African cuisine.

The most commonly used ingredients in cooking are coriander (cilantro), hot peppers, salt, black pepper, anise, garlic, and spices, which is the indication of their Indian influence.

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Cape Town - South Africa

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Local dishes also contain influences from many indigenous southern African cultures alongside European and Asian influences.

A popular spicy food from South Africa is Biltong – thinly-sliced beef or game meat which is cured in a mixture of vinegar, salt and various of spices (often coriander and pepper). Cape Malay curry is rich in cinnamon, turmeric and chili, whereas Chakalaka is a spicy vegetable dish.

However, perhaps the most famous spice used in South African cuisine is peri-peri chili – originally produced by Portuguese explorers, this is rather spicy, and is often served with chicken.

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Bunny Chow - South Africa’s National Street Food

Bunny Chow (Image Source)

Bunny chow is a hollowed-out loaf of bread filled with spicy curry - vegetable, mutton, or chicken curry can all fill the bowl made of bread. This is the signature dish of Durban and is the original “convenience” or “fast food” of South Africa.

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10) China

China is the most ancient living civilization in the world and it’s estimated that the roots of Chinese cuisine date back to the Yangshao Culture, between 5,000 and 3,200 BC. However, prior to 1570, there were zero chili peppers, regardless of variety, anywhere in China.

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A tiny section of the Great Wall of China which spans over 13,000 miles (20,000 km)

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Before hot chili peppers were brought over to China, the Sichuan Peppercorn, along with ginger, were added to dishes to give it heat. The Sichuan Peppercorn is native to China and is responsible for the numbing sensation it causes around your mouth. Unlike black or red chili peppers, Sichuan Peppercorn is not pungent and doesn’t contain capsaicin or piperine, but rather the molecule hydroxy-alpha-sanshool, which is responsible for the tingling sensation your mouth experiences when consuming it.

Today, Kung pow chicken, dan dan noodles, gan guo, Chuanbei Liangfen, gan bao chicken, kashgar kebabs, mapo doufu, Suan Cai Yu, and saliva chicken, are all examples of extremely spicy Chinese cuisine, many of which feature the Sichuan Peppercorn along with hot chili peppers.

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Sichuan-style liangfen. This dish is made with rice or bean noodles and is served cold (Image Source)

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Sichuan Cuisine

Sichuan cuisine, which is food from the Sichuan Province that borders Tibet, often pairs hydroxy-alpha-sanshool and capsaicin together, creating a synergistic heat effect known as 麻辣 (pronounced má là), meaning “numb” and “spicy.”

This synergistic effect boosts the spicy flavors to the next level as the Sichuan Peppercorn acts differently on our cell’s receptors than capsaicin. However, finding the Sichuan Peppercorn outside of China is rare as many travelers experience “numb tongue” for the first time while visiting the Red Dragon.

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Why isn't China higher on this list?

China has over 8,450 distinct dishes with the vast majority of them NOT having any hotness or spice to them. Salt, sugar, and egg are the most commonly used ingredients in China’s every-day diet. Also, China is huge as it even dwarfs the landmass of mainland USA. This large size provides 20 definite regional cuisines using over 2,900 ingredients with only a handful of these that are actually spicy.

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9) Mexico

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“In 2010, Mexican food was the first cuisine of a country accepted by the Intergovernmental Committee for the Safe guarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of UNESCO in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.”

- From the International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science

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Image Source: Cárdenas-Castro et al.

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In Mexico, there are approximate 100 varieties of Chilli Peppers (Capsicum annuum) which are more or less spicy, differing in both size and shape, with colors varying from pale yellow to dark red.

• 90% of Mexican cuisine is cooked using at least one chili pepper

• Some varieties: Serrano, jalapeño/chipotle, poblano/ancho, guajillo, pasilla, mulato

With a wide range of different chilies available, including poblano, chipotle, jalapeño and tobasco, Mexican cuisine contains its fair share of spicy, aromatic dishes.

Although traditional Mexican foods and snacks such as tacos, burritos, fajitas and enchiladas can be eaten without much seasoning, different types and levels of chili powder can be added. For example, fajitas can be seasoned in smoky chipotle chili powder, or in spicy garlic powder. Chicken can also be seasoned in different types of chili powder before cooking, and served with black beans and salsa.

Chile peppers originated in Mexico and have been a staple in Mexican cuisine for over 7,000 years. Unlike many other countries, spicy peppers are consumed by all social classes and the ability to handle “heat” has become a cultural trait of Mexicans.

8) Ghana

A beach in Accra - the capital and largest city of Ghana

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Spicy food is common in Ghanaian foods. With a cuisine that uses garlic, ginger and pepper, as well as a traditional spicy sauce named ‘Shito’, these spices are often complimented with maize, rice and bean-based foods.

One of the signature dishes of Ghana is a black-eye pea and tomato stew named ‘Red Red’, which is often seasoned with ginger and garlic. Kelewele (spicy plantains) is a fried dish that consists of crispy plantain cubes seasoned in ginger, hot pepper and salt.

Chichinga is a spicy meat skewer common throughout much of western Africa (including Ghana) – it is seasoned in paprika, ginger, cloves and cinnamon.

The Ghanaian believe that hot peppers cool the body and cleanses it of impurities.

7) Thailand

Thailand definitely has its fair share of spicy foods. With many different types of chilies growing within the country, and an abundance of spices such as peppercorn, garlic and ginger, there are plenty of dishes available that incorporate these, including dry curries and soups.

Kua Kling is an incredibly spicy dry curry that contains minced pork and a curry paste made from Thai dried chilies, turmeric, galangal and garlic.

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Kua Kling

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Kaeng Tai Pla is an extremely spicy thick soup that includes various herbs and spices including peppercorn and garlic.

Hot sauces are also part of Thailand’s cuisine, including Sriracha – made from red chilies, vinegar and garlic – and Thai sweet chili sauce.

One of the common misconceptions about Thailand is that all food is spicy. Traditional Thai food is all about harmony as hot is balanced with sweet, and sour with savory. Many Thai restaurants abroad over-spice dishes as these establishments attempt to prepare foods that meet people’s “Thai Spice” expectations.

6) Malaysia

Geographically, Malaysia is situated in the South-East Asia separated into two lands by the South China Sea, also known as East Malaysia, and West Malaysia which is part of the Borneo Island.

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East and West Malaysia (Image Source)

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Like with many countries in south-east Asia, Malaysian food generally has a kick to it, with a fair amount of their dishes being rather spicy.

Three cultures mainly inspire the local cuisine – Malay, Chinese and Indian – bringing in different spicy influences. Sambal Belacan– a spicy chili paste – is a commonly-found condiment that comes with Malay dishes, whereas poultry, meat and seafood are often spiced with herbs including galangal, turmeric, laksa leaves and various types of ginger.

Nasi Lemak – often referred to as Malaysia’s national dish – incorporates Sambal into its recipe. Along with neighboring Indonesia, dishes in Malaysia are also often topped with Gulai, a spicy curry-like sauce that consists of a wide range of spices, including turmeric, coriander, chili pepper and garlic.

Nasi Lemak

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5) Indonesia

Number 5 on this list should come as no surprise, considering that the Maluku Islands on the eastern archipelago of Indonesia, are better known as the “Spice Islands.”

• Christopher Columbus was only about 16,000 miles (25,800 km) off his mark when he floated into the Americas in 1492.

Bandung City, Indonesia

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Indonesian food is rather spicy – using chili and other spices in their cooking is just as common as in other parts of south-east Asia.

Rendang is a spicy meat dish that is popular throughout Indonesia, and is infused with an intricate mix of herbs and spices that includes cloves, star anise and cardamom. Bebek Madura is even spicier – this dish consists of tender duck meat seasoned with many different chili types, shallots and pepper.

However, spicier still is Seblak – a popular street food, Seblak is an incredibly spicy meat broth that is flavored with chili, shallots, garlic and kencur (garlic). 

Seblak (Image Source)

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4) Ethiopia

Ethiopian food is often rather spicy, and uses a wide range of different spices, including chili powder, garlic, ginger and many types of herbs. Many Ethiopian dishes use a mixture of these ingredients – known as Berbere spices – as a base.

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A market in Addis Ababa - Ethiopia’s capital city

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Tibs is an Ethiopian stir-fry and stew hybrid that includes vegetables, meat and butter, and can range from mildly to incredibly spiced. Ginger, cumin, cloves and chilies are among the spices used for this dish.

Shiro is a spicy stew that consists of powdered chickpeas or broad beans combined with many of the Berbere spices, whereas Messer Wot is an often incredibly spicy lentil dish that includes chili powder, cardamom, cinnamon and garlic.

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Mount Abuna Yosef in Ethiopia

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I contacted my friend Amadi, who is from Ethiopia, and this is what he says about Ethiopian cuisine:

Local food of Ethiopia is known for being spicy and tasty.

The level of its spiciness could be to the point were you can’t feel your tongue for a person who haven’t had experience with spice before. Most people say the reason why it’s Spicy is because of the accustom of the natives with spice and low intake of sweets as daily food.

The main ingredient used to make the food spice is called Berbere. Berbere is made up of fine red pepper mixed with some local spices.

The ratio of the mixture must be precise to attain the deliciousness, spice and crisp taste of Berbere. The art of mixing Berbere is so crucial that restaurants use that criteria to hire chiefs.

There is a funny assumption about spices in Ethiopia. Locals believe that eating a spicy food is manly and masculine. In addition to berbere, locals add green Chili to add the food’s spice.

Most dishes in Ethiopia uses Berbere to add spice to the food. Even if the food is made without berbere, adding a powder of berbere as a side meal is a common practice.

Tourists and foreigners find it difficult to cop up with the level of spice in Ethiopian local dishes until they get used to it. After a couple of tries tourists are observed to take some Berbere to their country.

Locals also believe that spicy food is good to health. They believe that it makes you tough and prevent you from diseases.

As an individual I can’t eat any food with out Berber in it. All chicken stew, beef stew, spaghetti uses some pinches of Berbere to add that tongue wrenching taste.

-Amadi

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3) India

India, also known as the “Spice Bowl of the World” is well known for cultivating black pepper along with cardamom, nutmeg, ginger, turmeric, and chili peppers.

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Spice Usage of Indian Cuisine

View fullsize

Image Source: Sugasini D., et al.

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India is a country that is made up of a huge number of different cultures, and its food reflects this rather well. Each region of India contains its own range of spicy dishes – or curries – which often consist of meat or vegetables cooked in a sauce which can vary from incredibly mild through to extremely spicy.

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Street vendor in New Delhi, India

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The more chilies that are added, the spicier the curry will be. Madras and Jalfrezi are two examples of spicy curries, with the former being flavored with large amounts of chili powder, garam masala (a hot spice mix) and cumin. Jalfrezi is a more onion-based dish that also requires a large number of chilies.

However, one of the spiciest Indian dishes is Vindaloo – although it originated in Portugal, Indian chefs in the city of Goa decided to add a great amount of chili powder to this curry, creating a dish that is renowned across the world for its incredible spiciness.

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Market in Pune, India

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What is Curry?

The word “curry” is a term invented by the Brits when India was under their colonial rule.

• Curry refers to any meat or vegetable dish cooked in a spiced gravy and served with rice

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2) United States of America (Southern States)

Nothing is as American or spicy as eating buffalo wings

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The southern states of the USA have a vibrant food culture that generally consists of Native American influences intermingled with dishes specific to European and Mexican communities who have settled in the region over the past few centuries. 

This includes a wide range of spicy foods – this is particularly seen in Tex-Mex cuisine, which borrows from Mexican and Native American food, and commonly uses chilies such as jalapenos and chipotle. 

Examples of Tex-Mex foods include chili con carne, enchiladas, and jalapeno-stuffed beef burgers. Cajun and Creole cuisine are both found in the state of Louisiana and its surrounding area – although these dishes tend not to be chili-based, large amounts of cayenne pepper and extra seasoning are used.

• Jambalaya, shrimp Creole, Zydeco Chicken, gumbo, and Mardi Gras King Cake are all examples of Creole/cajun dishes.

Buffalo Wings & Spice

Buffalo wings, also called “hot wings” are spicy, seasoned, and deep-fried chicken wings that originated in Buffalo, New York (USA) in the 1960s.

• Hot wings are traditionally NOT breaded, but instead are tossed into a super-intense spicy sauce and served with celery and blue cheese.

The level of spiciness depends on the establishment, but finding wings served in a Ghost Pepper or Carolina Reaper sauce is easy to find, if you are looking to find some regrettable moments, all done in the name of bragging rights. 

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The Carolina Reaper

The Carolina Reaper - hottest pepper on the planet (Image Source)

USA, home of the spiciest, commercially available chili pepper in the world - the CAROLINA REAPER - was cultivated and developed in South Carolina by American Ed Currie.

• For comparison, the average Carolina Reaper is 205 times hotter than the hottest varieties of jalapeños.

• Twice as hot as Ghost peppers (bhut jolokia)

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 1) Nigeria

A market in Abeokuta, Nigeria (women selling many different types of peppers)

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Spicy food is popular in Nigerian cuisine, with a fair amount of their dishes using a variety of peppers, including Rodo (Scotch Bonnet) and Shombo (chili pepper). It is particularly popular with the Yoruba peoples, an ethnic group which makes up a significant proportion of the Nigerian population, who believe that eating spicy food improves one’s quality of life.

Suya is a popular spicy Nigerian food – this is a meat skewer which is coated in chili pepper and a variety of additional spices including garlic, cloves and ehuru (nutmeg).

• Suya is basically a spicy grilled kebab and is the epitome of Nigerian street food, with every town having their favorite local vendor and is usually made with beef, ram, or chicken

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A man sells suya in the Asokoro section of Abuja, Nigeria. (Image Source)

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Ofada stew is another popular meat dish that is spiced with Rodo peppers and appears in the Western part of Nigeria. This dish gets its name from the local Igbo rice called the ofada rice and is a delicious and spicy Nigerian stew.

Nigerian cooking also produces incredibly spicy sauces and condiments – ata din din sauce is spiced using either Rodo or Shombo pepper varieties, as well as onion and salt. In addition, perhaps the spiciest sauce of them all is Agoyin sauce – made with a large amount of Rodo and Shombo peppers, this is popular in Nigeria, and is known for being extremely spicy.

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Spiciest food in the world = Nigeria

The difference between Nigerian cuisine and the dishes of other countries on this list is that nearly ALL Nigerian food is spicy. The Nigerian Pepper is the most used spice and condiment in Nigeria and every Nigerian dish has considerable hotness and “spice” to it.

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‌Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our resident badass. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. Valentina has traveled to over 100 countries and has eaten food in every country on this list.

• Favorite season: Austral Summer

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More articles from Pedal Chile

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References and sources for Countries with Spiciest Foods

1. Blasi, Abigail. The World’s Best Spicy Food : Where to Find It & How to Make It. Carlton, Vic., Lonely Planet, 2017.

2. Bosland P. W. (2016). Hot stuff - do people living in hot climates like their food spicy hot or not?. Temperature (Austin, Tex.), 3(1), 41–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/23328940.2015.1130521

3. Cárdenas-Castro, Alicia Paulina, et al. “Sauces: An Undiscovered Healthy Complement in Mexican Cuisine.” International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, vol. 17, Oct. 2019, p. 100154, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878450X19300137, 10.1016/j.ijgfs.2019.100154.

4. Harmayani, E., Anal, A.K., Wichienchot, S. et al. Healthy food traditions of Asia: exploratory case studies from Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Nepal. J. Ethn. Food 6, 1 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-019-0002-x

5. HAO, Chao-yun, et al. “Modeling the Potential Geographic Distribution of Black Pepper (Piper Nigrum) in Asia Using GIS Tools.” Journal of Integrative Agriculture, vol. 11, no. 4, Apr. 2012, pp. 593–599, 10.1016/s2095-3119(12)60046-x.

6. Ivonne Guadalupe Troconis-Torres, Marlon Rojas-López, César Hernández-Rodríguez, Lourdes Villa-Tanaca, Ignacio Eduardo Maldonado-Mendoza, Lidia Dorantes-Álvarez, Darío Tellez-Medina, María Eugenia Jaramillo-Flores, "Biochemical and Molecular Analysis of Some Commercial Samples of Chilli Peppers from Mexico", BioMed Research International, vol. 2012, Article ID 873090, 11 pages, 2012.

7. Oktay, Serdar, and Saide Sadıkoğlu. “The Gastronomic Cultures’ Impact on the African Cuisine.” Journal of Ethnic Foods, vol. 5, no. 2, June 2018, pp. 140–146, 10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.005.

8. Paul W. Sherman, Jennifer Billing, Darwinian Gastronomy: Why We Use Spices: Spices taste good because they are good for us, BioScience, Volume 49, Issue 6, June 1999, Pages 453–463, https://doi.org/10.2307/1313553

9. Sei, Yoshinobu. “Indian Cuisine and Umami.” Food Reviews International, vol. 14, no. 2-3, May 1998, pp. 269–271, 10.1080/87559129809541161.

10. Sherman, Paul W, and Geoffrey A Hash. “Why Vegetable Recipes Are Not Very Spicy.” Evolution and Human Behavior, vol. 22, no. 3, May 2001, pp. 147–163, 10.1016/s1090-5138(00)00068-4.

11. Sugasini D., et al. “Indian Culinary Ethnic Spices Uses in Foods are Palate of Paradise”. Acta Scientific Nutritional Health 2.8 (2018): 22-28

12. Tamang, Jyoti Prakash. “Indian Dietary Culture.” Journal of Ethnic Foods, vol. 3, no. 4, Dec. 2016, pp. 243–245, 10.1016/j.jef.2016.11.005.

13. Zhu, Yu-Xiao, et al. “Geography and Similarity of Regional Cuisines in China.” PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 11, 18 Nov. 2013, p. e79161, 10.1371/journal.pone.0079161.

Do They Speak Spanish in Brazil

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Bem-Vindo means “welcome” in Brazilian Portuguese

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Surrounded by many countries, the majority of which speak dialects of Spanish, Brazil is unusual in that it is the only Portuguese-speaking country within the entirety of the Americas.

The vast majority of the country’s 210 million people speaks a dialect of Portuguese – simply known as Brazilian Portuguese – as a first language.

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Brazilian Portuguese is the national and OFFICIAL language of Brazil and is spoken by 99% of the population.

• Brazilian Portuguese is distinct from European Portuguese with significant differences in pronunciation and vocabulary.

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Brazil & Languages

A wide range of other languages are used within the country, which is not surprising as Brazil is a rather multicultural country that covers a vast land area. The list of languages that are spoken includes many indigenous languages. In addition, although many people emigrated to Brazil from Portugal, a great deal also settled in the country from other European countries, bringing with them a wide range of other minority languages, including German and Italian.

Spoken by 99 percent of the population, Brazilian Portuguese is by far the majority language in Brazil. It is used in almost all schools and media outlets in the country, as well as in government, administrative and business settings.

Why Do Brazilians Speak Portuguese and not Spanish?

Although most of South America was colonized by the Spanish, the Portuguese colonized Brazil in the 1500s. During this time, most Brazilians spoke a language called Tupi. The Portuguese banned Tupi in the mid-1700s, however, many of these words made their way into Brazilian Portuguese.

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Pedro Álvares Cabral (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

However, this is just the short answer as the real story is much longer and more complex. When Pedro Álvares Cabral reached the Brazilian coast on April 22nd, 1500, there was more than 1,200 native indigenous spoken languages. Until the mid-18th century, Portuguese was spoken only in the coastal areas.

In 1757, a law was passed, called the Directory of the Indians’ (Diretório dos índios’) which prohibited the natives from speaking/learning their mother tongue and established Portuguese as the one and only language of Brazil.

By the year 2000, only about 170 indigenous languages have survived, mostly in the most remote places of the Amazon rainforest.

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Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (South America)

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Brazilian vs European Portuguese

The Portuguese spoken in Brazil today is markedly different from that spoken in Portugal. The vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation differs significantly, and the difference is greater than the one between British and American English.

Both Brazil and Portugal have undergone spelling reforms since the 16th Century, and the pronunciation and meaning of many of the words have changed so much that it is sometimes easier for Brazilian people to understand the Spanish that is spoken in Latin American countries than the language of Portugal. Furthermore, some of the grammar structures are rather different in both countries.

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Ordem e Progresso means “Order and Progress”

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Some linguists say the differences between European and Brazilian Portuguese are so huge that Brazilian Portuguese shouldn’t even be called Portuguese but instead Brazilian.

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Loan Words & Language

Immigrants from other European countries – in particular Spain, Italy and Germany – and from Asian countries such as Japan, have added many loanwords to the Brazilian Portuguese dictionary that would confuse a native speaker in Portugal.

It is also estimated that over a thousand words and phrases have entered Brazilian Portuguese from the many indigenous languages that already existed before the Portuguese merchants settled in South America, thereby influencing the language so that it diverges even further from standard Portuguese.

These include the name for indigenous flora and fauna, as well as many place names and natural features in Brazil.

Minority Languages & Brazil

There are many minority languages which are spoken in Brazil alongside Portuguese. According to the 2010 Census, 274 of these are spoken by indigenous peoples, who often reside in remote rainforest areas across the northern half of the country.

The largest languages are Tikuna, with 35,000 speakers, Guarani Kaiowá (spoken by 26,500 people) and Kaingang (with 22,000 speakers). Moreover, a total of nine indigenous languages are spoken by more than 10,000 people. Some of these are protected by the Brazilian government – for example, Tikuna was used by governmental campaigns for the prevention of AIDS and violence against women.

Tikuna is also taught to children in their local community alongside Brazilian Portuguese. However, despite these efforts, many of the indigenous languages are on the verge of extinction, and it is estimated that a third may die out by 2030.

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Due partially from Brazil’s massive size, there are 16 major Brazilian Portuguese dialects

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The Spanish Language in Brazil

In terms of European languages, Spanish is – perhaps surprisingly – spoken by only 460,000 people in the country. This is because many Spanish immigrants largely assimilated when they emigrated to Brazil, and their children mainly lost the native tongue of their parents.

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Iguazú Falls on the Argentina/Brazil border.

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Spanish & Portuguese: Similar but Different

This is perhaps understandable because – even though there are marked differences between Spanish and Portuguese – the two languages are fairly similar to one another, making picking up Portuguese easier for a Spanish person than it would be for someone from Germany.

In the areas of Brazil that border Spanish-speaking countries (which is almost the entire border), a pidgin language called ‘Portunhol’ has emerged, which more or less blends the two languages together.

More commonly spoken languages that were brought in by Europeans include German and Italian – generally concentrated in the southern and south-eastern parts of the country, dialects of these languages are spoken quite widely. Three-million Brazilians speak a German dialect named ‘Hunsrik’, whereas 1-million speak a variation of Italian that is referred to as ‘Brazilian Venetian’.

Hunsrik: 2nd Most Spoken Language in Brazil

Hunsrik is the second-most spoken first language in Brazil, with some municipalities in the extreme south of the country recognizing both the German dialect and Brazilian Portuguese as official languages in local areas.

Other minority languages include Japanese, with a small but close-knit Japanese community being located in São Paulo, as well as other small communities that speak a number of other languages including Catalan, Polish and Dutch.

Bottom Line

Although the vast majority of Brazilian people speak Portuguese, it is important to acknowledge that there is a wide range of minority languages spoken throughout the country.

Although a small minority do not speak Brazilian Portuguese, or have a limited understanding of it, many speakers of the minority languages speak Portuguese alongside their own language. The wide range of other languages used within the country only emphasizes that Brazil is a rather multicultural nation.

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our geology expert. Valentina has been in love with geology ever since she first saw Villarrica glowing in her native country of Chile. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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 More articles from Pedal Chile

• What language do they speak in “The Patagonia”

References and Sources

1. Babbel.com, and Lesson Nine GmbH. “Which Are the Most Spoken Languages in Brazil?” Babbel Magazine, 2017.

2. Braz, Rodrigo. “Fact Sheet.” Brazil, 23 Jan. 2018, www.brazil.gov.br/about-brazil/fact-sheet.

3. Hengeveld, Kees, and Marize Mattos Dall’Aglio Hattnher. “Four Types of Evidentiality in the Native Languages of Brazil.” Linguistics, vol. 53, no. 3, 1 Jan. 2015, 10.1515/ling-2015-0010.

4. Joseolgon. “English: Azulejos of Pedro Alvares Cabral, in Centro Cultural Rodrigues de Faria, Forjães, Esposende, Portugal, from Jorge Colaço.” Wikimedia Commons, 30 Oct. 2009, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pedro_Alvares_Cabral.JPG.

5. Limberger, Bernardo K., et al. “Phonemic Awareness in an Oral German-Origin Brazilian Language: A Study of Hunsrückisch and German Bilinguals.” Ilha Do Desterro a Journal of English Language, Literatures in English and Cultural Studies, vol. 72, no. 3, 7 Oct. 2019, pp. 427–445, 10.5007/2175-8026.2019v72n3p427.

6. ‌Massini-Cagliari, Gladis. “Language Policy in Brazil: Monolingualism and Linguistic Prejudice.” Language Policy, vol. 3, no. 1, 2004, pp. 3–23, 10.1023/b:lpol.0000017723.72533.fd.

7. ‌Ronald Milton Schneider, and Richard P Momsen. “Brazil - Language.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 29 Apr. 2019, www.britannica.com/place/Brazil/Language.

Countries With The Most Lakes

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Lake Defined

A lake is defined as a watercourse that is not directly connected to a sea or ocean. They are a frequent feature in many areas of the world, with 1.43 million located around the globe. Formed by many different geological processes, they form a large part of the natural landscape, often providing a great source of freshwater, and playing a key part of the water cycle.

But which country has the most lakes?

Taking into account results from a 2016 study by researchers from McGill University in Canada, this article lists and briefly describes the top 10 countries which contain the most lakes.

The countries’ ranking relies heavily on how large a body of water can be in order to be counted as a lake – this article follows the McGill University study’s definition, which is an area of at least 10 hectares/25 acres or 0.1 square kilometers (120,000 square yards) in size.

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10)  Australia – 11,400

With a vast desert that covers much of its interior, and a lack of glacial or plate tectonic activity, you may be surprised to see this country at number 10 in the list.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

However, Australia contains many man-made lakes, particularly in the south-eastern part of the country, which were constructed to provide water to the large coastal cities and agricultural regions in this area.

Many coastal lagoons and natural inland lakes also exist, as do numerous ephemeral salt lakes within the central flat desert regions.

• Lake Eyre, the largest lake in Australia covers 9,500 sq km (3,668 sq mi) is a 1/3 larger than the largest lake in all of Europe.

Aerial view of Lake Eyre, also known as Kati Thanda - an endorheic lake in the outback of South Australia

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“Given that 70% of Australia is arid, it is not surprising that >80% of lakes and wetlands by area are saline and occupy in excess of 100,000 km”

— From Hydrobiologia

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 9)     Kazakhstan – 12,400

Kolsay Lake in Kazakhastan

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Most of Kazakhstan lies within a basin, meaning that rivers flow from surrounding highland areas, including the Tian Shan Mountains along the southern portion of the country, and end at a series of numerous lakes within the Kazakh lowlands.

Although not all of its lakes are formed in this way, many of its lakes are - its largest lakes include Lake Balkhash, with an area of 6,300 square miles (16,400 km2), and the north-eastern portion of the Caspian Sea, which is recognized as the world’s largest lake.

• There are 48,262 “lakes” located in Kazakhstan, however, only 12,400 are large enough to be considered an actual lake

• 296 lakes are larger than 10 sq km

• 21 are larger than 100 sq km

• Kazakhstan is also the 9th largest county in the world

Map of Kazakhstan (Image Source: SMIRNOVA et al.)

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8)     Argentina – 13,600

Nahuel Huapi Lake in the Patagonia of Argentina

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Argentina consists mainly of two different landscapes – the Andes Mountains along the western side, and the vast fertile lowlands that cover the northern and eastern parts of the country.

Due to both areas being glaciated during the last Ice Age, each place contains a high number of lakes, with the fertile Pampas region being peppered with many small lakes, such as Lake Gómez near the city of Junín.

Within the Andes Mountains is Argentina’s Lake District, an area featuring many finger-shaped lakes that were formed by previously-existing glaciers.

• Northern Patagonia is home to the Lake District. A region that comprises of both southern Chile and Argentina and it’s known as the Switzerland of Patagonia.

  • The 1,522 foot (464m) deep Nahuel Huapi Lake is 1 of 19 major lakes in this region, and is also the largest

Lago Hermoso in the Northern Patagonia Lake’s District

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READ: Where/What is Patagonia

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7)     Norway – 20,000

Lake Ringedalsvatnet in Norway

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A country that was covered by glacial ice during the last Ice Age, Norway contains many lakes that were formed as the result of glacial processes.

Many man-made reservoir lakes were also created, made possible in large part by the existence of large and deep valleys along the western side of the country, formed by the large mountain range that makes up the backbone of the country.

Lakes include Tyrifjorden, a large 967 foot (295 m) deep lake around 25 miles (40 km) to the north-west of Oslo, Norway’s capital.

Norway (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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 6)     Brazil – 20,900

Lagoa da Conceição in Brazil

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In part due to its vast land area, Brazil contains many lakes. Although many of these are located within the Amazon region, particularly where the large rivers have formed ox-bow lakes, many more are found outside of it.

For example, the country’s largest lake – Lagos dos Patos – exists in the extreme south-east of the country.

• This large lagoon lake measures 180 miles (290 km) long and up to 40 miles (64 km) wide; it is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a wide sandbar.

Brazil also contains many man-made lakes, such as the large Sobradinho Reservoir, which is over 6 times larger than Lake Mead, the largest man-made lake in the USA.

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5)     Sweden – 22,600

The Northern Lights on Lake Torneträsk in Abisko National Park, Sweden

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Despite its relatively small size compared to the top four countries on this list, it is thanks to Sweden being covered in ice during the last Ice Age that it has such a high number of lakes.

Although many of these are small lakes that are dotted throughout the landscape, some are incredibly large in size. The largest of its lakes – Lake Vänern – is around 90 miles (145 km) long and up to 330 feet (100 m) deep in some parts.

• There are 395 lakes with a surface area exceeding 10 sq km (4 sq miles) in Sweden

• Lake Vänern is the largest lake in Sweden and the largest lake in the European Union (EU)

Lake Vänern (Image Source: Flickr)

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4)     China – 23,800

Tianchi Lake or Heaven Lake is the deepest lake and the largest crater lake in China

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A country with a massive surface area, China also contains its fair share of lakes. Although many of these are freshwater, such as the Hongze and Nansi lakes which can be found across the East China Plain, some of its lakes are infact saline.

For example, the country’s largest lake – Qinghai Lake – is saline, and contains no water outflow channel. Although many lakes are located in the rainfall-heavy south and east of the country, a large portion of its lakes are also found on the Tibetan Plateau, as well as in mountainous areas across the western half of the country.

• Poyang Lake is China’s largest freshwater lake

Poyang Lake bridge in China

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3)     USA – 102,500

Lake Powell in the United States of America

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A country which is known internationally for its vast Great Lakes along its northern border, the United States contains a huge number of lakes, many of which were formed by glacial processes during the last Ice Age.

Although many of its lakes are found either across the northern portion of the country, or in the northern valleys of the Rocky Mountains, lakes are frequently found in all regions of the country away from the deserts of the south-west.

The country also contains many man-made lakes, such as Lake Mead – the largest reservoir in the United States, which was created by the construction of the Hoover Dam in the 1930s.

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  2)     Russia – 201,200

Lake Baikal in Russia

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The world’s largest country in terms of land surface area, Russia contains over 200,000 lakes.

As most of the country is located at a rather high latitude, during the last Ice Age, ice covered the north and west of Russia. Although various factors prevented much ice accumulation across parts of Siberia, the previously ice-covered regions are today peppered with many lakes.

Although many glacially-formed lakes are found across northern Russia, the country’s largest lake – Lake Baikal – is not formed by glacial activity at all, but by plate tectonics. Two tectonic plates pull apart at this region, forming a Rift Valley that fills with water.

• Lake Baikal: This 12,000 square mile (31,000 km2) lake is also widely considered to be the deepest lake in the world, with a maximum depth of 5,387 feet (1,642 m) and is about half the surface area of Lake Michigan (1 of 5 Great Lakes).

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1)     Canada – 879,800

Being the second largest country in the world, it is no surprise that the country with the highest number of lakes is Canada – after all, a larger land volume means that there is a larger land area to include features such as lakes.

Sunrise in Lake Superior (Both USA and Canada)

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However, the largest country in the world – Russia – contains less than a quarter of the number of lakes than Canada does. The reason is due to the fact that the vast majority of Canada was situated under a large ice sheet during the last Ice Age – both glacial erosion and the vast weight of the ice sheet itself sculpted the landscape, leaving behind natural indentations when they retreated – these have since filled with water.

Although the largest lakes are Lake Superior and Huron (a large of which are also within the USA), many of these lakes are rather small, and can be found all over Canada.

Lake Louise in Canada

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• 62% of the world’s lakes are in Canada (more than the rest of the world combined)

• 9% of Canada’s surface area is covered by lakes

• Lake Manitoba in the Canadian province of Manitoba is the Western Hemisphere’s largest salt lake and is 79 sq mi (205 sq km) larger than the Great Salt Lake of Utah

• The Great Bear Lake is the largest lake in Canada that is located entirely in Canada and is about half the surface area of Lake Michigan

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What About Finland?

According to Wikipedia:

“There are 187,888 lakes in Finland larger than 5 ares (500 square metres / 5,382 sq.ft.) Most are small, but there are 309 lakes or reservoirs larger than 10 km²”

However, keep in mind that 500 square meters is .12 acres. For comparison, the average soccer field is 1.86 acres.

The data that was sourced for this article defined a lake with a minimum area of 25 acres, which is over 200 times larger than the minimum size lake in Finland.

1 of 187,888 “lakes” in Finland (Image Source: Wikimedia)

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The World Atlas notes:

“Finland's 187,888 lakes include all water bodies larger than 500 sq. m or just a little larger than the size of a basketball court. However, the list in the study was prepared by taking into account only lakes that are over 0.1 sq. km or 100,000 sq. m in size which is the size of about 18.5 football fields. Hence, Finland failed to feature on this list.”

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 More Articles from Pedal Chile

• Related Article: What Country Has the Most Active Volcanoes?

References and Sources for “Countries with Most Lakes:”

1. Busker, Tim, et al. “A Global Lake and Reservoir Volume Analysis Using a Surface Water Dataset and Satellite Altimetry.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, vol. 23, no. 2, 6 Feb. 2019, pp. 669–690, 10.5194/hess-23-669-2019.

2. Messager, M., Lehner, B., Grill, G. et al. Estimating the volume and age of water stored in global lakes using a geo-statistical approach. Nat Commun 7, 13603 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms13603

3. Timms, Brian V. “Salt Lakes in Australia: Present Problems and Prognosis for the Future.” Hydrobiologia, vol. 552, no. 1, Dec. 2005, pp. 1–15, 10.1007/s10750-005-1501-x.

4. Maberly, Stephen C., et al. “Global Lake Thermal Regions Shift under Climate Change.” Nature Communications, vol. 11, no. 1, 6 Mar. 2020, 10.1038/s41467-020-15108-z.

5. McDonald, Cory P., et al. “The Regional Abundance and Size Distribution of Lakes and Reservoirs in the United States and Implications for Estimates of Global Lake Extent.” Limnology and Oceanography, vol. 57, no. 2, Mar. 2012, pp. 597–606, 10.4319/lo.2012.57.2.0597.

6. SMIRNOVA, DINA, et al. “The Trichoptera of Kazakhstan: A Review.” Zoosymposia, vol. 10, no. 1, 9 Aug. 2016, pp. 398–408, 10.11646/zoosymposia.10.1.36.

7. Verpoorter, Charles, et al. “A Global Inventory of Lakes Based on High-Resolution Satellite Imagery.” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 41, no. 18, 16 Sept. 2014, pp. 6396–6402, 10.1002/2014gl060641.

8. “Which Country Has the Most Lakes in the World?” WorldAtlas, www.worldatlas.com.

Why Are Fire Trucks Red

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“When a great fire-engine is seen plunging along the street every one stops to look. ”

— From the 1907 book: Fire Fighters and Their Pets

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Making up an incredibly important part of the emergency services, fire trucks perform an extremely vital function in maintaining public safety. They are instantly recognizable across the world, not only due to their loud sirens and flashing warning lights when attending an emergency, but also because of their distinctively garish red color.

But why are fire trucks red in the first place? Why are they not a bright orange, a yellow or even a blue color?

There are a few theories as to why they are decorated in this distinctive color.  

As always when tracing the origin and meaning of any word, phrase, tradition, or even a standard, there are several competing theories that offer an explanation as to why anything is named, or done in, the way that it is.

In this case, a few theories attempt to explain why fire trucks are almost always painted in a distinctively red color – although some are more believable than others.

Theory #1: Red & The cheapest color of paint

One theory is as follows: when the earliest fire departments were set up by unpaid volunteers, they had limited money to spend on equipment, including the paint of the fire engines. They found that red was the cheapest color to use, and so they chose that specific color to decorate its trucks.

However, this theory is unlikely true due to one reason – that red paint is often the most expensive color to produce, mainly due to the combination of pigments that are used. Therefore, other theories and ideas must be considered.

Theory #2: Red & The Most Expensive Color

Another theory therefore rests on red being the most expensive color. During the 19th Century, when fire departments and brigades were being devised across the United States, there was a huge amount of competition between neighboring towns and villages as to which fire department had the trucks that stood out the most. This included using the most expensive decoration, which involved utilizing a large amount of brass, and the most expensive paint color.

Therefore, decorating a fire truck in red paint would show the neighboring areas which town took the most pride in its fire department, and eventually, all fire departments used the same color.

Theory #3: Red Fire Trucks & Visibility

However, a third theory rests on one key component – visibility.

• Due to its rather garish and stark hue, the color red stands out amongst a sea of rather neutral colors.

Although the second theory may have some weight to it, the first known red-painted fire engine dates back to 1721, many years before fire departments were devised on a wide scale.

Developed by an English inventor named Richard Newsham, this was a horse-drawn engine that could spray 100 US gallons (380 L) of water a minute. It is unknown as to why Richard Newsham chose red as the color, but it was most likely due to the starkness of the color. Some may even argue that he connected the incredible heat and the color of the red-orange flames with the color red.

Early Fire Trucks Were Small

A 1920 Model T Fire Truck (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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Beginning in the early 1900s, the color red became associated with danger and fire trucks. Cars were black, and fire trucks were not much bigger than other vehicles on the road, so the difference in color was extremely important. During this time, sirens were low-powered and had to be cranked by hand and emergency lights were incredibly dim. The color red was the only thing that could be done to differentiate fire trucks from cars.

Most Likely Theory??: Red = Visibility

Out of all of the three theories, the visibility idea appears to be the most likely. This is further supported by another factor – that when automobiles first rode the streets in the early 20th Century, the only color of car available at that time was a cheap black hue, in order to keep the prices of automobiles as low as possible.

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“Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black”

— Henry Ford

1909 Ford Model T (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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A red fire truck would have stood out like a sore thumb against much of the rest of the traffic, ensuring that people would see a fast-moving fire engine coming from afar.

Modern Day Color of Fire Trucks

However, this does not answer why fire trucks are still painted red today. After all, the advent of warning systems such as bright, flashy and loud sirens mean that the color of the trucks is not as relevant today as it was many decades ago. Some studies have even suggested that using lime-yellow or white colors may, in fact, be safer in terms of reducing fire truck-related accidents.

A 2009 study by the United States Fire Administration (USFA) concluded that fluorescent colors, including yellow-green and orange, are easier to see in daylight than reddish hues.

Brightly Colored Fire Trucks

As a result of such studies a handful of fire departments around the world have switched to other brighter colors, including the Canberra Fire Brigade in Australia, which today uses a fluorescent yellow-green color for its fleet.

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Yellow-Green Fire Truck in Australia (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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Red Trucks & Color Blind

Humans detect colors by using 3 types of photoreceptor cells in the retina, commonly known as cones. Color blindness results when one or more of these cones malfunctions.

• Red-green color blindness (protanopia) is the most common, whereby a person has a challenging time distinguishing between red and green tints of colors

• 1/12 men are on the color blindness spectrum

• 1/250 females also experience varying levels of color blindness

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Colors Perceived & CVD

Colors perceived by individuals having different types of Color vision deficiency (CVD)

(Image Source: Badawy et al.)

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A recent 2018 study, researched colors of fire engines and the number of accidents by color of Fire Truck:

• Red
• Lime-Green
• Lime-Yellow
• Yellow

So, what were the results after 4 years and more than 2.6 million fire truck runs??

• Red fire trucks had nearly double the accident rate of the brighter lime/green, lime/yellow, and yellow fire engines.

Today, many Fire Departments use a lime-yellow colored fire truck

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The color red for fire trucks made sense when all the other cars on the street where black. However, today, their are much safer colors that can be used since red is one of the least visible colors, even before we get into the whole colorblindness issues.

Tradition & Red Fire Engines

However, the majority of fire departments have kept their red color, for the main reason that red is the traditional color that has become synonymous with fire trucks. While the aforementioned USFA study concluded that fluorescent yellow-green colors may increase vehicle visibility, the report also concluded that being able to recognize the vehicle instantly – which is based on the common knowledge that fire trucks are red – is also incredibly important with regards to safety.

Therefore, continuing to paint fire trucks in a red color may, after all, be the most sensible thing to do. 

Fire Trucks in Chile

In Chile, all 40,000+ firefighters (bomberos) are volunteers and actually pay monthly contributions for their service. Fire trucks come in many different colors in Chile, South America, with Fire Truck Red being the most common color.

Red Fire Truck in Chile, South America (Image Source)

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our geology expert. Valentina has been in love with geology ever since she first saw Villarrica glowing in her native country of Chile. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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References and Sources for “Why Are Fire Trucks Red”

1. Badawy, Abdel-Rahman, et al. “Contact Lenses for Color Blindness.” Advanced Healthcare Materials, vol. 7, no. 12, 26 Apr. 2018, p. 1800152, 10.1002/adhm.201800152.

2. Contributors to Wikimedia projects. “Multi-Volume Reference Work.” Wikisource.org, Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 16 June 2008, en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography.

3. Hitch, Georgia. “Why Are Canberra’s Fire Engines Yellow instead of Red like Other States?” Www.abc.net.au, 4 Sept. 2016.

4. Kahl, J.T., Anderson, N.J., Casner, G. et al. Firefighter daytime visibility: trim properties and conspicuity. Fash Text 6, 18 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40691-019-0173-5

5. Nichols, Sam. “No Seriously, Why Are Fire Trucks Red?” Www.vice.com, 9 Jan. 2018, www.vice.com/en/article/ne44az/no-seriously-why-are-fire-trucks-red.

6. Solomon, Stephen S., and James G. King. “Fire Truck Visibility: Red May Not Be the Most Visible Color, Considering the Rate of Accident Involvement with Fire Trucks.” Ergonomics in Design: The Quarterly of Human Factors Applications, vol. 5, no. 2, Apr. 1997, pp. 4–10, 10.1177/106480469700500202.

7. “Why Are Fire Trucks Red?” Www.rocklandfirefighters.org, 19 Jan. 2007.

8. “Why Lime-Yellow Fire Trucks Are Safer than Red.” Https://Www.apa.org, 2014, www.apa.org/action/resources/research-in-action/lime.

Can a bike seat be too wide

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“In practice, a narrowest seat can minimize the interference between the thighs and the seat during cycling.”

— From the International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics

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A bicycle saddle that is too wide causes chafing due to your thighs rubbing against the sides of the seat and reduces pedal efficiency since the saddle interferes with your pedaling motion. Also, aerodynamics is worsened from the increased contact area between your spread-out legs and the increased air resistance.

• However, for recreational or leisurely riding, having too wide of a saddle is typically a non-issue and is generally preferred when comfort is prioritized over performance

• For performance-based cyclists, there is a trade-off between pedaling dynamics and comfort

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Optimal Saddle Width for Performance

Your saddle should be wide enough to support both your ischial tuberosities (or sit bones) plus an additional centimeter on each side (see image below).

Ideal saddle Width & Performance

When performance is your priority, the ideal saddle width is 2 centimeters more than the width of your sit bones:

• 1 cm of space between your ischial tuberosities and the edge of your saddle for a total of 2 centimeters

• Women’s sit bones are 1 cm wider on average than men’s, but the difference within genders is greater than the difference between the sexes

• Saddles wider than this will cause pedal inefficiencies and increase aerodynamic drag

Saddles should be comfortable and allow your legs to pedal without interference, and be narrow enough so you can move around, especially if you’re a mountain biker.

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Saddle Too Wide

If your saddle is too wide it’s just in the way. This results in a decrement in performance as you will not be able to pedal efficiently and if you ride long enough and hard enough, then you will develop saddle sores and chaffing. Also, when mountain biking, large saddles are more difficult to maneuver around and will become a limiting factor.

Recreational Riding & Saddle Width

If you’re cycling on a cruiser bike with a wide saddle or riding leisurely in a more upright posture, it’s nearly impossible to have a seat that is too wide.

Saddle Width & Contact Area

Keep in mind that the larger the saddle, the more contact area your seat has to spread out your body weight. Your sit bones do NOT have direct contact with the seat surface, because they are covered by muscles and fat tissues. The wider the seat, the more of you that is being supported.

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Pressure Distribution of Bicycle Patrol Officers

View fullsize

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More Than Just Saddle Width

The above image is from a 2002 study that researched saddle pressure among bicycle cops:

• Image on the left: Male sitting in a normal chair

• Middle Image: Bicycle Cop seated in upright position on a bicycle saddle

• Far right Image: Male is a forward-leaning, aggressive cycling position

Notice how the pressure moves from the buttock area in both the chair and upright seated positions to the perineum as the cyclist leans forward in a “pursuit” position??

• Saddle width is hugely important, however, saddle shape, cutout, firmness, and dimensions, all affect how your seat interacts with your body and riding style.

Saddle Not Wide Enough

Having a saddle that is too NARROW is more common and significantly more problematic than having a saddle that is too wide. When your saddle isn’t wide enough to support both of your sit bones, then your body weight is primarily supported by your body parts between the sit bones, which is your perineum.

• The labia for females

• Penis region for males

Putting pressure on these sensitive areas can cause health problems in the long- term and is uncomfortable in the short-term. Many people that find cycling to be “uncomfortable” need to swap out their saddle as the shape or size is putting pressure on their perineum.

Finding Ideal Saddle Width

The key is finding a saddle that fits your anatomy, matches your riding style, and is comfortable. Your local bike shop has devices that measure your sitting bone and a wide range of saddle widths to accompany your unique body.

(Image Source: Chen 2018)

X-ray scanning is the most effective and accurate method for measuring the distance between your ischial tuberosities (sit bones). However, this isn’t realistic unless your an Olympic or Elite cyclist.

You can get fairly accurate measurements by sitting on a piece of corrugated cardboard or having a good friend/partner do a direct measurement.

1. Measure the distance between your sit bones

2. Add 2 cm at the very minimum

Final Thought

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“The first rule of saddle fit is that it’s supposed to support your sit bones, not your whole butt.”

— Selene Yeager

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A bike saddle is a comprise between comfort, ease of mounting/dismounting, weight, cost, look, feel, comfort, and pedaling dynamics. For 90% of cyclists, it’s nearly impossible to have a seat too wide.

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YES….. Help me Dial-in my ride!

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

• Is my saddle too far back?

• Does shaving my arms make me faster?

Sources & References for “Can A Bicycle Seat Be Too Wide”

1. Arthurs-Brennan, Michelle. “How to Choose the Right Saddle for You.” Cycling Weekly, 12 May 2020.

2. ‌BikeFit. “Sit Bones Width Measurement and Bike Saddle Selection.” BikeFit, 15 Oct. 2019, blog.bikefit.com/sit-bones-width-measurement-and-bike-saddle-selection/.

3. Chen, Wei-Long, and Fang-Lin Chao. “Novel Structural Design of a Bicycle Saddle to Fulfill Cyclist Physiological Requirements.” Recent Patents on Engineering, vol. 14, 19 Aug. 2020, 10.2174/1872212114999200819154905. ‌

4. Chen, Yi-Lang. “Predicting External Ischial Tuberosity Width for Both Sexes to Determine Their Bicycle-Seat Sizes.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, vol. 64, Mar. 2018, pp. 118–121, 10.1016/j.ergon.2018.01.008.

5. Chen, Yi-Lang, and Ping-Jui Yang. “A preliminary study of the measurement of external ischial tuberosity width and its gender differences.” Journal of physical therapy science vol. 28,3 (2016): 820-3. doi:10.1589/jpts.28.820

6. Christiaans HH, Bremner A. Comfort on bicycles and the validity of a commercial bicycle fitting system. Appl Ergon. 1998;29(3):201-11. doi: 10.1016/s0003-6870(97)00052-5. PMID: 9676337.

7. Guess, Marsha K et al. “Women's bike seats: a pressing matter for competitive female cyclists.” The journal of sexual medicine vol. 8,11 (2011): 3144-53. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02437.x

8. Litwinowicz, K., Choroszy, M. & Wróbel, A. Strategies for Reducing the Impact of Cycling on the Perineum in Healthy Males: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 51, 275–287 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01363-z

9. Schrader, Steven & Breitenstein, Michael & Clark, John & Lowe, Brian & Turner, Terry. (2002). Nocturnal Penile Tumescence and Rigidity Testing in Bicycling Patrol Officers. Journal of andrology. 23. 927-34. 10.1002/j.1939-4640.2002.tb02352.x.

10. “The Four and a Half Rules of Road Saddles.” Www.cervelo.com, 15 Sept. 2015, www.cervelo.com/en/the-four-and-a-half-rules-of-road-saddles.

11. Yeager, Selene. Every Woman’s Guide to Cycling : Everything You Need to Know, from Buying Your First Bike to Winning Your First Race. New York, New American Library, 2008.

Why does the back of my knee hurt when I ride a bike

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Seat-to-Pedal Distance, commonly called Saddle Height, is responsible for how efficient your power production is and directly affects your joint angles and the ranges of motion of your muscles. 

• Pain in the back of the knee commonly results from cycling with your saddle positioned too high. This pain is the result of your legs over-extending during each pedal stroke which results in an overstretch of the tendon that connects the muscles of your hamstring to your tibia.

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Seat way too high: An example

Most likely he is taking his dad’s bike out for a stroll….. but notice how he can barely touch the pedals and is only “toeing” them even before reaching bottom dead center??

• This is an example of a saddle that is way too high. Frequent cycling with this saddle position will cause pain in the back of the knee and a host of other pain issues.

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Anatomy of the Knee

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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General Bike Fit Rules of Thumb

• Pain in the BACK of the KNEE = cycling with SEAT TOO HIGH

• Pain in the FRONT of the KNEE = riding with SADDLE TOO LOW

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A) Saddle Too High

• A) Saddle positioned too high which causes the cyclist to reach further to push on the pedal.

• B) However, eliminating all pelvic motion is not ideal either, because the pelvic motion helps transfer power from the upper torso to your lower limbs (Image Source: Leavitt and Vincent)

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Causes of posterior knee pain: Saddle Too High

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“If the hips rock back and forth when pedaling, the saddle is too high”

— From the" PHYSICIAN AND SPORTS MEDICINE"

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Saddles that are too high or too far back can over-stress the hamstring muscles. Posterior knee pain (pain behind the knee) develops from cycling with too high of a saddle and manifests as either biceps femoris tendonitis (biceps tendinosis) or popliteus tendinitis.

• Either way, your hamstring muscles are being over-extended and pulled, which results in pain in the hamstring or where your muscle inserts around your knee.

• Excessive internal rotation of your cleats (feet pointed toward the bike) will also increase the stress on this tendon and can manifest as posterior knee pain.

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READ: “Is My Saddle Too Far Back” if you would like more info about your fore/aft position.

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“Biceps tendonitis is another common over-use injury in cyclists and can be caused by a saddle height that is too high. If the saddle is too high it can cause posterior knee pain by over-extension in the dead spot at the bottom of the stroke, which puts a heavy strain on the biceps femoris. Due to this, it has been recommended that the saddle height be set between a 25-35° ”

— From the Journal of Exercise Physiology

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Fixing posterior knee pain

If you are experiencing pain in the back of your knee(s), your first step is to analyze your saddle height and also check your fore/aft seat position. Having your saddle too far back, effectively raises your saddle height, since this places you further away from the pedals.

1. Check your saddle height

2. See if your saddle fore/aft position is correct

Self Care & Knee Pain

• Apply ice to the inflamed area in 15-minute intervals

• Foam roll surrounding muscles (but not on the area of pain or inflammation)

• Rest: Don’t go cycling

• Get a professional BikeFitting to avoid injuries in the future and improve comfort and performance and correct current issues

If rest, foam rolling, and icing fail to alleviate your knee pain, then it’s time to speak to a trained medical professional, such as a physical therapist.

Preventing Knee Pain

Graphic of the relative frequency of injuries in various areas from a 1995 edition of the British Journal of Sports Medicine

(Image Source: Callaghan and Jarvis)

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Bicycling is highly repetitive. Just cycling 1,000 miles per year can take over one-million pedal strokes. Any slight misalignment of your bicycle settings, such as improper saddle height, create a cascading effect of issues, such as knee pain.

In the above graphic from a 1995 edition of the British Journal of Sports Medicine, the knee and low back suffer the most injuries. Both lower back and knee injuries are highly influenced by your seat to pedal distance (saddle height).

Even though this graphic is over 25 years old, it’s still reflective of the most common injuries today. If you are uncomfortable or experiencing any pain, these are signs you need to tweak your bike settings.

Preventing hamstring pain and cycling injuries can be as simple as checking your Bike-Fit settings. Proper saddle height, cleat position, and handlebar setup are very important in creating a comfortable and healthy ride.

quick summary

• Saddle Too High: Posterior knee pain most commonly commonly results from cycling with too high of a saddle position (unless you happen to ride a fixie*)

• Saddle Too Far Back: Riding with your saddle too far back places you further from the pedals which effectively raises your seat and can result in pain in the back of your knees

• Solutions: Lower your saddle or move it forward (or both). If you are unsure how to find your correct saddle height, then seek a professional or check out our video.

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* A “fixie” or fixed-gear bicycle can cause hamstring injuries since you use your hamstrings to slow/stop the bike.

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Need help adjusting your saddle position??

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

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Sources and References

1. Asplund C, St Pierre P. Knee pain and bicycling: fitting concepts for clinicians. Phys Sportsmed. 2004 Apr;32(4):23-30. doi: 10.3810/psm.2004.04.201. PMID: 20086406

2. “Biceps Femoris Tendinopathy - Knee Tendinopathy - Knee - Conditions - Musculoskeletal - What We Treat - Physio.co.uk.” Www.physio.co.uk, www.physio.co.uk/what-we-treat/musculoskeletal/conditions/knee/knee-tendinopathy/biceps-femoris-tendinopathy.php.

3. Callaghan, Michael J. “Lower Body Problems and Injury in Cycling.” Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, vol. 9, no. 3, 1 July 2005, pp. 226–236, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1360859205000124, 10.1016/j.jbmt.2005.01.007.

4. Callaghan, M J, and C Jarvis. “Evaluation of Elite British Cyclists: The Role of the Squad Medical.” British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 30, no. 4, 1 Dec. 1996, pp. 349–353, 10.1136/bjsm.30.4.349. ‌

5. “EFFECTS of SADDLE HEIGHT on PERFORMANCE and MUSCULAR ACTIVITY during the WINGATE TEST.” Journal of Physical Education, vol. 28, no. 1, 2017, 10.4025/jphyseduc.v28i1.2838.

6. Johnston, Therese E et al. “THE INFLUENCE OF EXTRINSIC FACTORS ON KNEE BIOMECHANICS DURING CYCLING: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.” International journal of sports physical therapy vol. 12,7 (2017): 1023-1033. doi:10.26603/ijspt20171023

7. Korff, Thomas, et al. “Effect of ‘Pose’ Cycling on Efficiency and Pedaling Mechanics.” European Journal of Applied Physiology, vol. 111, no. 6, 3 Dec. 2010, pp. 1177–1186, link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00421-010-1745-7, 10.1007/s00421-010-1745-7.

8. Leavitt, Trevor G., and Heather K. Vincent. “Simple Seat Height Adjustment in Bike Fitting Can Reduce Injury Risk.” Current Sports Medicine Reports, vol. 15, no. 3, 2016, p. 130, 10.1249/jsr.0000000000000254.

9. Peveler, Will W. “The Effect of Saddle Height on Economy in Highly Trained Cyclists.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, vol. 41, May 2009, p. 10, 10.1249/01.mss.0000353288.18971.8d.

10. Peveler WW, Green JM. Effects of saddle height on economy and anaerobic power in well-trained cyclists. J Strength Cond Res. 2011 Mar;25(3):629-33. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181d09e60. PMID: 20581695.

11. Pruitt, Andrew L, and Fred Matheny. Andy Pruitt’s Complete Medical Guide for Cyclists. Boulder, Colo., Velopress, 2006.

Why are the seasons reversed in the Southern Hemisphere

Picture taken in South America’s Atacama Desert (Figure 1)

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The Earth rotates about an imaginary line that passes through the north and south poles of the planet.

• This imaginary line is called the axis of rotation and ALWAYS points in the same direction

  • The North Pole always points toward the star Polaris, commonly called the North Star

Think of the Earth as a spinning top, that is tipped to one side, at an angle of 23.45 degrees. The tilt of the Earth and the Earth’s orbit work together to create the seasons.

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The axis of rotation and the North Star (Polaris). The Earth’s tilt on its axis leads to one hemisphere facing the Sun more than the other hemisphere and gives rise to seasons.

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The Tilt of The Earth: The Sun & The Seasons

As the Earth travels around the Sun, it remains tipped in the same direction toward the North Star. When the northern half (Northern Hemisphere) of the Earth is pointing towards the Sun (summer), the southern half (Southern Hemisphere) is tilted away from it (winter).

• Notice that when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away from it, and explains why the hemispheres have opposite seasons.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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Southern Hemisphere Summer

The summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere happens on December 21st or 22nd. This is the day that the tilt of the Earth’s axis, maximally points toward the Sun in the Southern Hemisphere.

• When it’s the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere, it’s the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere

• The Sun’s rays more directly strike the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere during summer

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Summer Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere

Notice the rays from the Sun striking the Tropic of Capricorn more directly in the Southern Hemisphere summer?? Also, notice the southern hemisphere tilting towards the Sun, leaving the Northern Hemisphere in winter. (Figure 2)

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Southern Hemisphere Winter

The winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere happens on June 21st or 22nd. This is the day the Earth has maximally tilted away from the Sun in the Southern Hemisphere.

• In the Northern Hemisphere, the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun, with the Sun’s rays striking the northern half more directly in the northern summer.

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Winter Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere

Notice how the Earth’s axis is tilted toward the sun in the northern half, which leaves the southern hemisphere in winter? (figure 3)

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Is there a North Star equivalent in the Southern Hemisphere?

There is no true equivalent. Sigma Octantis, based on position, could be considered the “South Pole Star,” however, unlike Polaris (North Star) it’s too dim to be used as a consistent celestial reference point.

• Sigma Octantis is also over a degree away from the true south pole

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia (southern hemisphere). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, snowboarding, reading, taster of craft beers, researcher, & star-gazer.

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Sources :

1. Duro/ESO, A. “English: Science and Art Unite in This Beautiful Photograph, Taken in Chile’s Atacama Desert by ESO Photo Ambassador Adhemar M. Duro Jr. To Create This Visual Masterpiece Adhemar Pointed His Camera at the Sky’s South Pole, the Point at the Centre of All the Bright Arcs and Circles. All the Stars in the Night Sky Revolve around This Point. Over a Period of Several Hours, This Motion Creates Star Trails, with Each Individual Star Tracing out a Circle on the Sky. These Trails Display the Various Brightnesses and Colours of Each Star, Creating a Captivating Scene! Towards the Top Left of the Image, You Can See a Short, Bright Streak of Light Cutting across the Trails — This Is Caused by a Meteor, Burning up in a Flash of Light as It Enters Earth’s Atmosphere. The Desert’s Harsh and Arid Landscape, Illuminated Here by the Light from the Stars….” Wikimedia Commons, 1 Aug. 2016, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:All_In_A_Spin_Star_trail.jpg. (Figure 1)

2. “File:Earth-Lighting-Summer-Solstice EN.png - Wikimedia Commons.” Commons.wikimedia.org, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earth-lighting-summer-solstice_EN.png. (Figure 3).

3. “File:Earth-Lighting-Winter-Solstice EN.png - Wikimedia Commons.” Commons.wikimedia.org, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earth-lighting-winter-solstice_EN.png. (Figure 2).

4. Shaw, Justin. “Justin Shaw, Beaverton, Oregon. “Is there an equivalent to the North Star in the Southern Hemisphere?” Astronomy.com, 26 May 2009.

5. “What Causes the Seasons? | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids.” Nasa.gov, 2016, spaceplace.nasa.gov/seasons/en/.

6. “Why Does Earth Have Seasons? | NOAA SciJinks – All about Weather.” Scijinks.gov, scijinks.gov/earths-seasons/.

Hottest Countries in the World - Top 10

6 of the top 10 hottest countries are located in Africa and near or in the Sahara Desert (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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Although all of the Earth’s countries located away from the equatorial regions experience seasons, some with winters and summers that are more extreme than others. There are plenty of areas on Earth that spend the whole year in incredibly hot temperatures, as these 10 countries are the hottest on Earth.

• Calculated by averaging their maximum and minimum daily temperatures, recorded between 1961 and 1990

• All of these are either located on the African continent, or are island nations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

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10)   Benin – 81.59°F (27.55°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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Located in western Africa, Benin is bordered by Nigeria on the east and Togo on the west.

The majority of its population lives on its southern side, which borders the Bight of Benin, part of the northernmost tropical part of the Atlantic Ocean. The country’s interior is mainly made up of a savannah-type environment.

• Highest recorded temperature in Benin = 113°F (45°C)

• Average yearly daytime temperature: 91.4°F (33°C)

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Atakora - a village in Benin (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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9)   Palau – 81.68°F (27.60°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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Palau is an island nation that is situated in the western Pacific Ocean, with the islands of the Philippines to the east, and Indonesia to the south. Located between 2.8°and 8° north of the Equator, this is a great example of a tropical island that experiences a guaranteed warm and humid climate all year round.

However, another factor comes into play in terms of maintaining the heat – the warm temperature of the surrounding Pacific Ocean ensures that temperatures do not drop quickly at night after spending a day being heated by the overhead Sun.

• Hottest recorded temperature = 95°F (35°C)

• Average yearly daytime temperature: 87°F (31°C)

  • At night, the average temperature does not drop by more than 10°F (5.5 °C)

• Annual average dew point temperature: 76°F (24.4°C) which is over 13% more humid than the most humid city in the United States (Key West, FL)

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Palau archipelago (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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8)   Maldives – 81.77°F (27.65°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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Located in the Indian Ocean to the south-west of India and Sri Lanka, the Maldives are a chain of small islands that are around 541 miles (870 km) in length. With its capital Malé, situated at around 4.2° north of the Equator, it is not surprising that these islands experience incredibly warm and humid weather on a constant basis.

• The Republic of Maldives are 300 miles south-west of India

• Maximum elevation of the entire island chain = 2 meters

• Highest recorded temperature = 99°F (37°C)

• Average yearly daytime temperature: 86°F (30°C)

The Maldives archipelago consists of 1192 islands, most of which are so tiny you can spot the ocean from any spot.

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7)   Mauritania - 81.77°F (27.65°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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Located in north-western Africa, it is understandable that Mauritania has such a high average temperature – much of it lies within the Sahara Desert, with the semi-arid Sahel region across the south of the country.

Bordered by Senegal to the south, Mali to the south and east, and the countries of Algeria and Western Sahara to the north, the western side of the country is most likely to be the coolest area, since it borders directly onto the Atlantic Ocean.

• Yearly daily temperature ranges from 55°F to 104°F (13°C to 40°C)

• Hottest recorded temperature in Mauritania = 119°F (48°C)

• Average daytime temperature exceeds 100°F (38°C) over half the year

Terjît valley in Mauritania

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6)   Senegal – 82.13°F (27.85°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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With its northern section within the Sahel region, and a savannah landscape typifying much of the central and southern parts of the country, Senegal is placed at number six on this list.

Located in western Africa to the south of Mauritania, west of Mail and the north of Guinea, Senegal is in a prime position to receive hot weather.

Its close position to the Equator ensures that the country receives a hot climate on a constant basis. 

• Hottest recorded temperature in Senegal = 123°F (50.5 °C)

• Average yearly daytime temperature exceeds 93°F (34°C) for the interior of the country

Saloum Delta National Park, Senegal

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5)   Tuvalu – 82.40°F (28.00°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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Tuvalu is a country that is made up of 9 separate coral islands in the south-western Pacific Ocean, located around halfway between Australia and Hawaii.

Being surrounded by warm tropical waters, and situated at a latitude between -10° and -5° North, the conditions are perfect to allow for hot days and warm, humid nights, regardless of the time of year.

• 4th smallest nation in the world

• Maximum elevation is 5 meters

• Average temperature lies between 77ºF to 88°F (25ºC to 31ºC)

• Rainfall varies from 2,700 mm per year in the northern islands to 3,500 mm in the southern

• Highest recorded temperature in Tuvalu = 106°F (41°C)

• Lowest recorded temperature = 68°F (20°C)

• Yearly average dew-point of Funafuti (capital city): 77°F (25°F) or 3% more humid than Bangkok, Thailand.

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Tuvalu Funafuti Atoll (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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 4)   Djibouti – 82.40°F (28.00°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

Situated on the northern side of the Horn of Africa, Djibouti is an incredibly arid country that consists of almost entirely desert areas.

• Bordered by Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, the country is located on the western end of the Gulf of Aden, which links to the Red Sea via the Bab al-Mandab Strait.

• Due to being around 12° to the north of the Equator, Djibouti endures incredibly hot weather.

During the hot months, May to September, the temperature ranges from 97°F to 117 °F (36°C to 47 °C)

• Highest recorded temperature in Djibouti = 115°F (46°C)

• Lowest recorded temperature = 61°F (16°C)

Djibouti City, Djibouti

• Summer daytime temperatures hover around 104°F (40°C), while at night, they drop to 86°F (30°C) in the country's capital

Lake Abha in Djibouti. This is a salt lake.

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3)   Kiribati – 82.76°F (28.20°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

“The climate of Kiribati is hot and humid, with very little variation in maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year.”

— International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

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An island nation in the central Pacific Ocean, Kiribati consists of 9 different islands that straddle the Equator line. With the Sun almost directly overhead the entire year, and the warm and tropical Pacific waters surrounding the islands, the ingredients are perfect in allowing for year-round heat and humidity. 

Christmas Island and lagoon in Kiribati

• The average elevation is less than 3 meters above sea level

• Highest recorded temperature = 113°F (45°C)

• The average yearly daytime temperature: 88°F (31°C)

• Tarawa, the capital city of Kiribati is one of the most humid cities in the world and has an annual average dew point temperature of 75.4°F | 24.1°C which is even muggier than Bangkok, Thailand yearly average of 74°F | 23.3°C

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 2)   Mali – 82.85°F (28.25°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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Mali (Image Source: The World Factbook)

Mali, the second hottest nation in the world, is a landlocked country in western Africa, bordered by several countries including Mauritania, Senegal and Burkina Faso, which are also on this list.

Although the south-east of the country has a savanna-like landscape, much of the south lies within the Sahel region. However, the large northern extent of Mali lies within the Sahara Desert, with scorching hot days occurring for most of the year, peaking far above 110°F (43°C) between the months of June and September.

Combined with the hot and humid conditions of the savanna along the south of Mali, as well as the lack of fresh sea breezes, results in a country that suffers through incredibly stifling temperatures.

• Mali is twice the size of the state of Texas (USA) and mostly lies in the Sahara Desert.

• Highest recorded temperature = 130°F (54°C)

• Average yearly daytime temperature: 88°F (31°C)

• The average daytime temperature ranges from low 80s to low 100s°F (28 to 40°C)

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Village Telly in Mali (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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1)     Burkina Faso – 82.92°F (28.29°C)

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

• The country with the highest average temperature on Earth, Burkina Faso, is a landlocked country in western Africa that borders the second hottest country of Mali.

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Image Source: The World Factbook

In terms of its landscape, it can be loosely divided into two halves – with the south of the country being characterised by a savanna landscape, and the northern half consisting of the semi-arid Sahel region, Burkina Faso contains plenty of dryland environments.

• The lack of a coastline close to the country also prevents any relatively cooler air from reaching the country from the Atlantic Ocean, which is located around 300 miles (480 km) to the south.  

• Highest recorded temperature = 117 °F (47°C)

Burkina Faso: 3 Climate Zones

1. Hot tropical savanna with a short rainy season (southern half)

2. Tropical hot semi-arid steppe climate (central and northern)

3. Small, hot desert in the north that borders the Sahara Desert

Village in Burkina Faso - The hottest country on the Earth

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Bottom Line

Burkina Faso, a landlocked Sahelian country, is the hottest country in the world - with an average daily temperature of 83°F (29°C).

• Located in the Sahara Desert, this western Africa nation gets blasted by heat, from the harmattan, a dry east wind that picks up a considerable amount of dust and heat from the Sahara.

• Ouagadougou, the capital of Burkina Faso, averages over 100°F (38°C) from March to May in the hot season. During the “cool” season, the temperature drops to an average of 90°F (32°C).

  • For comparison, this is nearly 20% warmer than Bangkok, Thailand.

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our geology expert. Valentina has been in love with geology ever since she first saw Villarrica glowing in her native country of Chile. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer 

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More articles from Pedal Chile

• Hottest temperature EVER recorded on Earth

• Coldest Temp on Earth? It’s so cold you can’t even breathe

References and sources for hottest countries:

1. “Climate and Temperature Development.” Worlddata.info. www.worlddata.info

2. Fall, Souleymane, et al. “Analysis of Mean Climate Conditions in Senegal (1971–98).” Earth Interactions, vol. 10, no. 5, 1 Jan. 2006, pp. 1–40, 10.1175/ei158.1.

3. “Harmattan.” Wikipedia, 8 Jan. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmattan. Accessed 6 Feb. 2021.

4. “Hottest Countries in the World 2021.” Worldpopulationreview.com, worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/hottest-countries-in-the-world.

5. Idriss, Abdoulkader Ibrahim & Ahmed, Ramadan & Kassim, Rima & Idris, Abdou & Barutcu, Burak & Awalo, Abdoulhamid & AKINCI, T. Cetin. (2019). Suitability and evaluating wind speed probability distribution models in a hot climate: Djibouti case study. International Journal of Renewable Energy Research. 9. 1-11.

6. Madaleno, I.M. (2011). Climate change in the Pacific: Tuvalu case-study. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment. 144. 243-252. 10.2495/ECO110221.

7. McIver, Lachlan; Woodward, Alistair; Davies, Seren; Tibwe, Tebikau; Iddings, Steven. 2014. "Assessment of the Health Impacts of Climate Change in Kiribati" Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 11, no. 5: 5224-5240. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110505224

8. Naia, Marisa & Brito, José. (2021). Geographical Atlas of Mauritania.

9. “This Month in Climate History: Earth’s Hottest Temperature | National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Formerly Known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC).” Noaa.gov, 2012, www.ncdc.noaa.gov/news/month-climate-history-earth%E2%80%99s-hottest-temperature.

10. “Where Is the Hottest Place on Earth?” Earthobservatory.nasa.gov, 5 Apr. 2012, earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/HottestSpot.

The Driest Desert in the World

El Valle de la Luna or Valley of the Moon in the Atacama Desert, Chile - South America.

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What is a desert?

Defined as a large expanse of land that is extremely dry, and consists of either no vegetation, or limited areas that are vegetated, deserts make up a significant part of the Earth’s landscape.

Over one-third of the Earth's land surface is desert and at least one desert is found on all of the continents, including the Tabernas Desert in Europe.

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Valle de la Luna in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile

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Reasons for Deserts

They are caused by a number of factors, which include permanent areas of high air pressure preventing rain from developing over an area, rain shadow effects, and even because an area of land is too far away from large water bodies to receive rain.

The variety of different factors also means that some deserts are drier than others, ranging from semi-arid expanses of land through to hyper-arid areas, some of which have not seen measurable rain for hundreds of years.

Also, although many deserts around the world are located in hot and dry locations, and often consist of sand or rocks, some also exist in cold polar regions.

The Atacama: The Driest Warm Desert on Earth

“The Atacama Desert is one of the most extreme environments on Earth. As the driest hot desert in the world, life here is extremely marginal. ”

— Quaternary Science Reviews

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The Atacama desert in Chile, South America

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If we are looking at the driest warm desert in the world – one which is rocky, sunny and receives hot days all year round, then the driest one is the Atacama Desert.

(Image Source: Clarke 2006)

Making up the central section of the west coast of South America, the Atacama runs from the plateau of the Andes Mountains, and borders the Pacific Ocean on its western side. With a total area of 40,541 square miles (105,000 km2), it occupies the northern quarter of Chile, and small parts of Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. It contains a spectacular landscape of rocky plains, barren hills and the large mountains of the Andes on its eastern side.

Vast salt flats cover parts of the desert, the largest of these being Salar de Uyuni in the Bolivian section of the Atacama. Natural saltwater pools accumulate within some of the salt flats, often from groundwater that has risen to the surface.

Excluding polar regions, the Atacama is the driest desert in the world. Although the average rainfall across the whole desert is around 0.6 inches (15 mm) per year, some places within the Atacama barely record 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) of rainfall a year.

The small city of Calama, located in the heart of the desert, is one of the driest cities in the world, with an average annual precipitation of only 0.2 inches (5 mm). In 2015, parts of the hyper-arid core received unexpected rainfall; this is estimated to have been the first rain to land on those areas for at least 500 years.

Near the Chilean city of Calama (Image Source: Flickr)

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The Atacama's extreme aridity is caused by three main factors:

1. Rain shadow

2. Prevailing high air pressure

3. Cold Pacific Ocean current

1) Rain Shadow

Firstly, being located to the west of the Andes Mountains means that, when the prevailing south-easterly trade winds bring in moisture across the South American continent from the South Atlantic, they reach the Andes and rise. This results in the moisture condensing and falling on the eastern side of the Andes – very little of it reaches the Atacama side.

2) Prevailing High-air Pressure

Secondly, constant high air pressure over the region prevents moisture from falling over the region, and means that any moisture is converted into water vapor, and so cannot condense into rain.

3) Cold Pacific Ocean Current

However, the last factor is due to the cold Humboldt Current – running northwards along much of South America’s western coast, the current brings cold water up from the southern Pacific region, fairly close to Antarctica. This means that any onshore wind is chilled, and so it cannot pick up any moisture from the Pacific.

These three factors merge to create a perfectly dry storm – an incredibly arid region of South America.

The Atacama Desert

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 The McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antartica: Driest Place on Earth

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Wright Valley in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica - (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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“The McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica are an extreme environment. They comprise a large (4,000 km2) ice-free area considered to be the driest and coldest desert on Earth, limiting to the survival of many forms of life”

— Polar Biology

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Although the Atacama is the driest warm desert on Earth that fits the definition of a warm, rocky and sunny desert, there is one place on Earth which is even drier – The McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica, the driest place on Earth.

• Located around 2,000 miles (3,400 km) to the south of New Zealand, these valleys consist of a 1,850 square mile (4,800 km2) area that is completely barren of any ice or snow.

• Cold air holds less water vapor than warm air

  • Air at freezing temperature (32°F) holds 10 times less moisture than air at 100°F

  • Air at 32°F holds about 20 times less moisture than air at 130°F

  • Average temperature of the Mcmurdo Dry Valleys = -16°F/-27°C

• The McMurdo Dry Valleys have not seen rain for nearly 2 million years

Bull Pass in McMurdo Dry Valleys (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

Katabatic Winds: Antarctica

This is due to the presence of mountains to the south and west of the valleys, which cause katabatic winds to form.

This means that cold air is dragged down from the ice-covered region that overlooks the valleys, and in turn warms up. These strong katabatic winds cause any ice or snow that has slid or drifted into the dry valleys region to evaporate.

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Katabatic Winds (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

What are Katabatic Winds?

• Katabatic Winds = winds that blow down slopes that are cooled by radiation

  • Strong winds that are a climatic feature of Antarctica

  • Winds caused by cold denser air falling down the slope of the Antarctic continent

  • Katabatic Winds average 45-mph (72kph)

    • Katabatic winds have been recorded approaching 150-mph (241-kph)

Katabatic wind is a gravity flow maintained by the temperature/density difference of the air in the surface layer when compared with the free air temperature at the same altitude further down the slope.

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McMurdo Dry Valleys: Zero Rain

Very little precipitation falls in the region. No rain has fallen in the region for nearly two million years, and snow falls are very little, with an average of 4 inches (10cm) falling in the valleys per year.

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Image Source: (Dreesens et al.)

A combination of the aforementioned katabatic winds, overlooking mountains and incredibly cold temperatures prevents more measurable amounts of snow from falling, and the strong and dry winds prevent any rare meltwater from sinking far into the soil.

Therefore, although the Atacama Desert is drier in terms of annual precipitation levels being lower, the McMurdo Dry Valleys have been completely barren of any rainfall for a far longer time.

The McMurdo Dry Valleys, with a combined area of approximately 4800 km2, is the largest ice-free area in Antarctica. This region was discovered by members of Robert Falcon Scott’s party during their 1903 expedition to reach the South Pole.

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bottom line

The Atacama is the driest non-polar desert in the world while the McMurdo Dry Valleys is the coldest polar desert on planet Earth. Both places are thought to resemble Mars and are both used as training grounds for astronauts.

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our geology expert. Valentina has been in love with geology ever since she first saw Villarrica glowing in her native country of Chile. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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Sources and references

1. Cain, Fraser. “What Is the Driest Place on Earth?” Universe Today, 12 June 2008, www.universetoday.com/15031/driest-place-on-earth/.

2. California Academy of Sciences. “The Desert Biome.” Berkeley.edu, 2019, ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/deserts.php.

3. Charlotte L. King, Andrew R. Millard, Darren R. Gröcke, Vivien G. Standen, Bernardo T. Arriaza, Siân E. Halcrow. “Marine resource reliance in the human populations of the Atacama Desert, northern Chile – A view from prehistory. ”Quaternary Science Reviews, Volume 182,2018, P. 163-174.

4. Clarke, Jonathan D.A. “Antiquity of Aridity in the Chilean Atacama Desert.” Geomorphology, vol. 73, no. 1-2, Jan. 2006, pp. 101–114, 10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.06.008.

5. Crits-Christoph, A., Robinson, C.K., Barnum, T. et al. Colonization patterns of soil microbial communities in the Atacama Desert. Microbiome 1, 28 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/2049-2618-1-28

6. Doran, Peter T. “Valley Floor Climate Observations from the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, 1986–2000.” Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 107, no. D24, 2002, 10.1029/2001jd002045.

7. Dreesens, Lisa, et al. “The Distribution and Identity of Edaphic Fungi in the McMurdo Dry Valleys.” Biology, vol. 3, no. 3, 30 July 2014, pp. 466–483, 10.3390/biology3030466.

8. Friedlander, Blaine. “For Arid, Mars-like Desert, Rain Brings Death.” Phys.org, 14 Nov. 2018, phys.org/news/2018-11-arid-mars-like-peruvian-death.html.

9. Juli Hennings, Juli, and Harry Lynch. “Exploring Earth’s Driest Deserts | EarthDate.” Www.earthdate.org, 2017, www.earthdate.org/exploring-earths-driest-deserts.

10. Nkem, Johnson N., et al. “Wind Dispersal of Soil Invertebrates in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica.” Polar Biology, vol. 29, no. 4, 27 Sept. 2005, pp. 346–352, 10.1007/s00300-005-0061-x.

11. November 2013, Becky Oskin 01. “Antarctic Hills Haven’t Seen Water in 14 Million Years.” Livescience.com, 1 Nov. 2013, www.livescience.com/40890-antarctic-dry-valleys-no-water.html.

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14. Speirs, Johanna C., et al. “Regional Climate Variability Driven by Foehn Winds in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica.” International Journal of Climatology, vol. 33, no. 4, 4 Apr. 2012, pp. 945–958, 10.1002/joc.3481.