Do Stiffer Cycling Shoes Make a Difference

Ricardo ( Pedal Chile guide)

“This study appears to debunk the general belief among cyclists and the cycling industry that the stiffest cycling shoe soles yield the highest performance.”

— James Warren Hurt III

Cycling shoes are designed to be light, snug, and stiff. The element of stiffness, allows you to transfer force efficiently from your foot to the pedal since stiff shoes flex or bend less.

Stiffer soles make pedaling more efficient as more of the energy is transferred from your foot to the pedal but only during sprints and periods of all-out cycling. Recreational riding doesn’t generate enough force onto the pedals to cause sufficient shoe deformation and the low cadence doesn’t affect muscle coordination.

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While stiff-soled cycling shoes have been shown to improve performance, studies show that increasing the level of stiffness even further doesn’t make you faster, and can exacerbate pain, numbness, tingling, burning, and discomfort in your feet due to the increased pressures.

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Cycling performance: Stiff shoes & Science

Product designers and manufacturers say:

“The stiffer the sole, the better the transfer of power through the pedals and better performance.”

However, finding scientific evidence to actually substantiate these claims is rather challenging. A 2020 study entitled “No effect of cycling shoe sole stiffness on sprint performance” concluded:

"In conclusion, we found no difference in performance between less stiff and stiffer road cycling shoe soles during short uphill sprints in recreational/competitive cyclists. The stiffest cycling shoe soles showed no performance benefits in: 50 m average and peak 1-second power, average and peak change in velocity, maximum velocity, peak acceleration, or peak torque compared to a moderately stiff and the least stiff road cycling shoe soles offered by a well-known manufacturer." (bolding is mine)

-----(Hurt and Kram, 2020)

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This most recent study confirms what has been known since the 1990s, which is that stiffer soles are better than flexible running shoes, but stiffer is only better up to a point.

The aforementioned study tested 3 different cycle specific shoes of varying stiffness during a 50 meters sprint up a 5% hill and blinded the shoes by covering all logos and graphics and by matching the uppers.

The stiffness index and materials of the 3 cycle-shoes:

• 6.0 stiffness index - Injection-molded nylon composite

• 8.5 stiffness index - carbon fiber/fiberglass composite blend

• 15.0 stiffness index - Carbon fiber sole

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One of the questions that this paper was unable to answer is what is the “critical” sole stiffness where performance worsens.

If this question could be answered, then manufacturers could develop a shoe that would optimize comfort and performance. The stiffer the sole, the more unnatural it becomes, and uncomfortable.

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Performance Benefits: Hills & Sprints

Stiffer shoes only offer performance benefits while pedaling all-out, such as during hill climbs, sprints, and fast accelerations.

Sub-maximal pedaling, such as recreational riding at a comfortable pace, stiff-soled cycling shoes don’t perform any better than comfy athletic sneakers.

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Cycling Shoes: Maximum effort sprints & hill climbs

• Stiff soled cycling shoes outperform regular sneakers during all-out sprints:

  • 10% more power output with cycling shoes compared to regular shoes (even less with a stiffer soled rubber shoe)

• The level of stiffness of cycle-specific shoes does not correlate with performance

  • Some stiff cycling-shoes perform worse than more flexible ones and vice-versa as the function of shoes is much more than just stiffness

  • The difference between the least stiff cycling shoe to the stiffest is about .6 watts more power in the stiffest.

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LOOK Cycle International. This pedal was used on a stationary bicycle for NASA space shuttle missions.

(Images Source: Smithsonian Institution)

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Flexible Shoes & Wasted Energy

In running, your shoe can actually store energy and return it as elastic energy.

Cycling, by contrast, any mechanic energy that deforms the shoe during the downstroke is lost during the upstroke. However, the difference in this “lost” energy is about .6 watts between the least stiff to stiffest cycle-specific shoe since the relative difference in stiffness is “modest” to say the least.

Considering many cyclists produce 1000+ watts during sprints, the difference between sole types is less than 0.1% or less than 1/10 of a percent.

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Ricardo’s cycling shoes (Pedal Chile guide)

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Cycle Shoes: comfort vs Stiffness

“Competitive or professional cyclists suffering from metatarsalgia or ischemia should be especially careful when using carbon fiber cycling shoes because the shoes increase peak plantar pressure, which may aggravate these foot conditions. ”

— Journal of Science and Cycling

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Relative loads (%) under the foot in a running and a bicycle shoe (*p < .05, **p < .01).

(Image Source: Hennig and Sanderson)

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Cycle-specific shoes, especially when riding clipless, is one of the most important pieces of gear since your feet will be attached to the bike the entire ride. Proper and comfortable fitting shoes is more important than the level of stiffness.

Cycling-specific shoes are stiffer than sneakers or athletic shoes, and this stiffened sole spreads out pedal forces more evenly across the foot. In running shoes, most of the force from pushing into the pedal is centered around the toes/ball of foot, whereas in cycling shoes, the pressure is more evenly distributed.

On a continuum from super flexible to super-rigid shoes, the perfect comfort level for cyclists is somewhere in the middle and based on numerous other factors. A shoe too flexible, like sneakers, places too much pressure on the balls of your feet. However, too stiff a sole, combined with a less-than-perfect fit, will lead to high hallux (big toe) pressure, which can magnify pain, numbness, tingling, and burning in your feet.

"Somewhat less stiff cycling shoe soles may help to prevent or alleviate metatarsalgia or ischemia that can occur in cyclists due to the increased plantar pressures associated with carbon fibre cycling shoe soles." -(bolding is mine)

-----(Hurt and Kram, 2020)

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Cyclists who ride clipless pedals are 2 to 3 times more likely to experience foot pain compared to riders who use platform pedals. The cycling shoe is supposed to alleviate foot pain, not exacerbate it.

This makes you wonder if cycling shoes have gotten too stiff over the years, as studies show that the stiffest of shoes can lead to foot pain and discomfort.

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Really!?!….Tell me more

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why are clipless shoes so stiff?

(Image Source: Stępniewski and Grudziński)

Why are clipless shoes so stiff?

Platform pedals or flat pedals provide a large “platform” that you can drive into.

Clipless pedals, however, are small and require a much stiffer shoe to disperse the pedaling force as the connection area is 80% smaller than a flat pedal. Because of this reduced area, the soles of the shoe itself becomes the platform. If the shoe wasn’t stiff, you would be driving your foot into a tiny area, which would be uncomfortable and inefficient.

“Just because something makes you faster doesn’t make it better ”

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Clipless pedals are stiffer than traditional shoes because they have to be.

Even if super stiff shoes facilitated a more efficient transfer of power and thus made you faster, it still doesn’t mean that stiffer is better. Discomfort, pain, and injuries are all exacerbated from pedaling with a super stiff shoe. While it makes sense to wear the fastest shoe on race day, recreational riding and training sessions are a different story.

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Track Cycling & Smaller Pedals

Track (sprint) cyclists benefit from clipless pedals more than any other cycling discipline.

The original LOOK clipless pedal system was nearly the same size as standard flat pedals. To avoid contact between the pedal and the steep banking track, designers made the pedal smaller and more compact. As high strength materials were developed, the pedal sizes became even smaller. Also, faster accelerations was a side effect of this, due to the reduced pedal mass.

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Final Thought

If you’re wanting to go faster, there are less expensive and easier ways, for example:

• Shaved legs = 50 to 82 seconds faster over 25 miles (40km)

• Shaved arms = 13 to 22 seconds faster over 25 miles (40km)

• Change your riding posture = seconds to minutes over same distance

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Click me to learn how

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, bicycle commuting, reading, snowboarding, researching, and sampling yummy craft beers.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

Sources & references for stiffer soles and bicycle performance:

1. Burns, Andrew C., and Rodger Kram. “The Effect of Cycling Shoes and the Shoe-Pedal Interface on Maximal Mechanical Power Output during Outdoor Sprints.” Footwear Science, vol. 12, no. 3, 24 May 2020, pp. 185–192.

2. FastFitnessTips: Cycling Science. “Are Carbon Soles on Cycling Road or Mtb Shoes Worth It?” YouTube, 9 Nov. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=fzZT0wgIzNI.

3. Fletcher, Jared R., et al. “The Effect of Torsional Shoe Sole Stiffness on Knee Moment and Gross Efficiency in Cycling.” Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 37, no. 13, 18 Jan. 2019, pp. 1457–1463.

4. Global Cycling Network. “Clipless Pedals Vs Flat Pedals - Which Is Faster? | GCN Does Science.” YouTube, 23 July 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkMCYYNTWUY&t=461s.

5. Hennig, Ewald M., and David J. Sanderson. “In-Shoe Pressure Distributions for Cycling with Two Types of Footwear at Different Mechanical Loads.” Journal of Applied Biomechanics, vol. 11, no. 1, Feb. 1995, pp. 68–80.

6. Hurt, James W., and Rodger Kram. “No Effect of Cycling Shoe Sole Stiffness on Sprint Performance.” Footwear Science, 4 Oct. 2020, pp. 1–9.

7. Jarboe, Nathan Edward, and Peter M. Quesada. “The Effects of Cycling Shoe Stiffness on Forefoot Pressure.” Foot & Ankle International, vol. 24, no. 10, Oct. 2003, pp. 784–788.

8. Koch, M., Frohlich, M., Emrich, E., & Urhausen, A. “The impact of carbon insoles in cycling on performance in the Wingateanaerobic test.” Journal of Science and Cycling, vol 2, no. 2, 30 Dec. 2013, pp. 2 - 5.

9. “Pedal, Left, Accessories, Shuttle Cycle Ergometer.” Smithsonian Institution.

10. ‌Sanderson, David J., et al. “The Influence of Cadence and Power Output on Force Application and In-Shoe Pressure Distribution during Cycling by Competitive and Recreational Cyclists.” Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 18, no. 3, Jan. 2000, pp. 173–181.

11. Stępniewski, A.A., and J. Grudziński. “The Analysis of Pedaling Techniques with Platform Pedals.” International Journal of Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 19, no. 3, 1 Aug. 2014, pp. 633–642.

12. Uden, H., Jones, S., & Grimmer, K. (2012). Foot Pain and Cycling: a survey of frequency, type, location, associations and amelioration of foot pain. Journal of Science and Cycling, 1(2), 28-34.

Is it ok to wash your bicycle at a self-service car wash?

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(Image Source: Cannondale Bicycle Owner’s Manual and also found in GT Bicycles Owner’s Manual)

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“Avoid using the high-pressure sprayers you find at pay car washes to clean your bike. The soaps can be corrosive, and the high pressure forces water into bearings, pivots, and frame tubes, causing extensive damage over time. ”

— Zinn & The Art of Mountain Bike maintenance

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It’s common to see people wash their road and mountain bikes at the car wash using a high-pressure sprayer.

This is a quick and convenient technique for cyclists or riders to get a super clean bike, really fast. And as most serious riders know, nothing prolongs the life and performance of your bike, as much as just keeping it clean and lubed.

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However, is it really okay to wash your bike using high-pressure washers, such as those found at car washes or in your garage?

If you care about the lifespan of your bicycle and its components, then you should avoid using pressurized water to wash and clean your bike.

• These washing systems can force water past seals, such as those in your hubs, headsets, and bottom bracket, which will severely reduce their working life and can cause sudden failure.

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pro mechanics & power-washing

In the book, The Official Tour de France Bike Maintenance Book, which takes you behind the scenes of the Tour de France, the authors note:

“Tour mechanics use jet washers to clean off the degreaser and wash off soapy water. There are mixed views on whether this is advisable because a jet washer can force grease from bearings if aimed directly at them.

Most pro team mechanics, however, use jet washes on low power and with a spray nozzle which they operate in a sweeping motion and do not hold directly over bearings.”

-The Official Tour de France Bike Maintenance Book

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Now, just because the pros use high-pressure washers, doesn’t mean that it’s good for the longevity of the components. Race-day performance is the only thing that counts, and a clean bike helps with that.

Later in the book, they note:

“a jet wash will blast away dirt and rinse the frame and wheels in seconds, but it can also drive water into bearings, which can seriously shorten their working life.”

“(as) moisture ingress can over time break down grease and oil and cause corrosion, destroying bearings and impairing the function of other components.”



These professional bike mechanics aren’t just mindlessly spraying:

1. They have the bike in a repair stand with the wheels off to make sure no degreaser comprises the tires or that chain lube isn't splashing about (like on rotors) 

2. They use the lowest pressure-setting unless race-day happened to be a rain and mud fest

3. Just as soon as the bike has been rinsed, it’s passed to another mechanic-stand to be meticulously dried, from a combination of air hoses and micro clothes

4. Finally, these mechanics will re-lube all the required components, such as the derailleur pivots, jockey wheel bearings, and the chain

Needless to say, this washing process is significantly different compared to Joe and Jane Rider at the local car wash.

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Owner’s Manual & jet washing your bike

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“ Do not use high-pressure water.”

— Santa Cruz Bicycles User Manual

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“Never spray your bicycle using high pressure, and never spray directly onto bearing points or electrical parts on e-bikes”

— Trek Bicycle owner's manual

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“Rinse thoroughly (if you use a hose, don’t direct high-pressure spray at your bike)”

— Arktos Owner's Manual

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“Once the bike is soaped and the degreaser applied, rinse it with non-pressurized water and make sure the water does not get into parts like the headset, hubs or bottom brackets.”

— Mondraker owner's manual

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“For wet cleaning, use a gentle water jet or a bucket of water and a sponge. Only use clean fresh water or desalinated water.”

— Cube Bike Owner's Manual

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It’s pretty clear, bike manufacturers, who know a thing to two about bikes, strongly advise against using high-pressure water to clean them.

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If you “must” power (jet) wash

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“While using high-pressure car washes to clean your bike is sometimes unavoidable when your bike gets covered with mud while traveling, be careful when using them. ”

— Zinn & the Art of Road Bike Maintenance

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If you still want to use a power washer, make sure you do so, smartly and carefully:

1. Don’t spray directly into anything that spins

   • Hubs

   • Bottom Bracket

   • Headset

2. Don’t use the soapy setting. Only rinse with water

3. Avoid spraying directly onto fork or shock if you have a mountain bike

4. If you have an electronic derailleur, avoid direct spraying on its components

5. It’s VERY important to dry your bike off after spraying…..at the very least, bounce the bike a few times and let sit in the sun

6. The majority of lube will be blasted off your chain, so it’s vital to apply lubrication after drying your bike

Garden hose vs pressure washer

“Pressure (jet) washers are certainly quick, but generally not a good idea for cleaning your bike as they tend to blow water into sealed units such as the headsets, forks, hubs, and bottom bracket. They also ruin your cables and blow all the lubricant off your chain.”

— Complete Road Bike Maintenance

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A typical garden hose has a pressure of 40 to 60 PSI, whereas a pressure washer at a car wash will range from 1,200 to 1,900 PSI.

Muc-Off makes a “bike specific” power washer, which is basically just a less-powerful jet washer, with a max PSI of 1,450 (100 bars) and it has a bike attachment that lowers the force to about 1,000 PS (69 bars)……which is still way too powerful, IMO.

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Many power washers that contractor use have a PSI of 3,000+ which should never be used on your bike. Anything over 1900 can damage the paint on a car…..just imagine what it can do to delicate carbon components?

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Calvin Jones, Park Tool & bike washing

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“If you were to use a water hose, use a very fine mist - do not blast things on the rise. ”

— C. Calvin Jones

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C. Calvin Jones doesn’t even like to use a standard garden hose to rinse off a bike. So who is this Mr. Jones? Calvin Jones is the Director of Education for the Park Tool Company and is the author of the Big Blue Book of Bicycle Repair, which is basically the Bible of bicycle repair and is the book that professional bike mechanics reference when they have a question.

So how does Calvin Jones rinse off a bike?

Drinking bottle or bike rinsing tool???

Answer = both

Calvin uses a cycling water bottle to rinse off the bike and says, “it won’t over-douse the bike, it won’t blast out grease.”

If you want to use a garden hose, Calvin recommends using a very list mist as anything stronger “cleans out the grease from inside the bearings.”

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final thought

Some bike aficionados claim the dangers of power-washing a modern road or mountain bike are overstated, as these modern machines have sealed hubs, headsets, and bottom brackets.

Simon, from the Global Cycling Network (GCN), blasted a bottom bracket with a jet washer for 5 seconds, 20 seconds, 1-minute, and 2-minutes, totaling 4 rounds at 3 minutes and 25 seconds. Only the final round of blasting resulted in water ingress.

However, like most things in life, the dose makes the poison. Pressure washing your bicycle after every ride, without regard for seals or drying, will most certainly shorten the lifespan of your bike. However, after riding through a rainstorm, mud, or being exposed to excessive dirt and grime, there are worse things you can do for your bike than power hose it off…..assuming you’re careful with your aim, take time to dry, lube, and do it rarely.

At the end of the day it’s your bicycle, just keep in mind, that routinely spraying it with pressurized water will eventually cause component failure……but maybe that’s just the “Universe” sending you a “sign” that it’s time for that brand new upgrade.

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Related article from Pedal Chile: Can I use WD-40 on my chain?

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Want to go Faster?

Pedaling Science - Formulated to go really fast

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and is an avid MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction, taster of yummy craft beers, and user of pressure washers on his beater bike.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

Sources for "Dangers of Power Washing Your Bicycle"

1. Andrews, G. (2013). Complete road bike maintenance. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

2. Downs, T. (2010). The Bicycling guide to complete bicycle maintenance & repair for road & mountain bikes. Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale.

3. Edwardes-Evans, L. (2019). The official Tour de France bike maintenance book : how to prep your bike like the pros. London: Carlton Books.

4. Global Cycling Network (2017). Should You Jet Wash Your Bike. YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LzbpHGyFzc8

5. Park Tool(2015).  Bike Wash Tips. YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BtgMzais5G0&t=81s. [online]

6. Park Tool (2020). How to Wash a Bike. YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B2sKhSDrugE&t=568s ‌

7. Rohan Dubash and Andrews, G. (2014). Bike mechanic : tales from the road and the workshop. London: Bloomsbury.

8. Zinn, L. (2016). Zinn & the art of road bike maintenance : the world’s best-selling bicycle repair and maintenance guide. Boulder, Colorado: Velopress.

9. Zinn, L. and Telander, T. (2018). Zinn & the art of mountain bike maintenance : the world’s best-selling guide to mountain bike repair. Boulder, Colorado: Velopress.

Do I Need a Sports Bra For Cycling

“A comfortable, ideally seamless, sports bra is essential for cycling, and mountain bikers will want extra support and stability. ”

— Robin Barton in "The Cycling Bible"

In 1977 runners Hinda Miller and Lisa Lindahl sewed together two athletic supports or “jockstraps” and created the prototype of the modern-day sports bra. This “Jockbra” was later rebranded under the name Jogbra, for obvious reasons.

If you have small breasts that don’t move much while cycling, you’re unlikely to suffer from exercise-induced breast discomfort.

However, if your breasts move a lot when you’re cycling or mountain biking, or if you experience breast pain/discomfort, even if your breasts are small, a supportive bra is an absolute must and will make your ride even more enjoyable and relaxing.

Do I need a sports bra for cycling?

• Yes. You should wear a sports bra during any activity that causes breast movement which encompasses all forms of cycling and mountain biking.
  • Vigorous forms of cycling and mountain biking cause breast bounce, which leads to breast discomfort and stretching and is easily minimized by wearing a correctly fitting sports bra.

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FUN FACT: The first commercially available jogbra (1977) sold for $8.00, which is nearly equal to $35.00 today (2020).

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How do I know if I need a sports bra?

• If you experience breast pain or discomfort from bouncing boobs, then you need to wear a sports bra. Breast bouncing during cycling and mountain biking should be minimized to increase comfort, performance, and pedal efficiency.

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Image Source: Zhou, Yu and Ng, 2012)

Cycling: Sports bra & efficiency

Sports bras work by allowing the breasts and trunk of the body to move as one unit, which is mimicking the motion of males.

Wearing a proper-fitting supportive bra reduces the activity of the “pec” muscles by 55%, which causes you to get fatigued quicker, especially while mountain biking.

“A woman’s choice of breast support can also influence her breathing rate, lung capacity and thermoregulation during exercise”

— Dr. Deirdre McGhee

The bigger the breasts, the heavier, for example, a size 34B (75B in EU) weighs about 7 ounces (200grams) and a size 38D (85D in EU) weighs about 1.5 pounds (700gram). The heavier the breasts, the more movement, which will cause you to use more energy without the right amount of chest support.

When breasts bounce during activities, they don’t bounce in unison nor do they bounce in coordination with your torso. In addition to this causing discomfort, it also is very inefficient and will require you to expend more energy to maintain the same power output while pedaling.

So a sports bra can make me faster?

While no direct studies have been conducted that look specifically at cycling performance and breast support, several studies have researched running performance while wearing sports bras. The researchers found: 

• Significant reductions in “pec” muscles activity with reductions of over 60% during endurance events 

• Shoulder and deltoid activation was also significantly higher without adequate bra support (similar to “pec” activation) 

• Decreased efficiency through modifications in running mechanics and stride length and frequency 

While cycling and running are different, the increased activation of upper body muscles during cycling can lead to increased energy demands and fatigue. If you are out riding all day, wearing a sports bra can make you faster by not wasting precious calories and energy.

intensity, age, size, activity & extra support

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The anatomy of the breast (Image Source: Haake and Scurr, 2010)

“If your breasts move a lot during exercise or if you suffer from exercise-induced breast discomfort, even
if they are small, a supportive bra is an absolute must.”

— Breast Research Australia (BRA)

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Three Body Planes

(Image Source: Zhou, Yu and Ng, 2012)

Any activity that causes your bosoms to bounce, especially if they move excessively and frequently, then you should be wearing a sports bra for extra support.

All breasts sit on top of the pectoralis muscles (“pecs”) and are attached to your body only by the Cooper’s ligament and your skin. The heavier the breasts, the more movement.

The amount of breast support needed varies with age, bra size, type of exercise, and intensity:

“Cooper’s ligaments and the skin are the only anatomical structures that provide any breast support.”

— Breast Research Australia (BRA)

• Age - As you age, your skin thins and its elasticity decreases. Breasts are only attached to the chest by the Cooper’s Ligament and skin, so more movement occurs as you age

• Size - Large breasts weigh 1.5 to 2+ pounds (700g to 1kg). Larger breasted women will need more support as larger breasts move more

• Activity - Any activities that cause vertical movements of the body cause more breast movement and require greater breast support

  • Vertical movement exercises = running, horseback riding, basketball, volleyball, and mountain biking

• Intensity - The more vigorous the intensity, the more support you will need. Going from a walk to a jog or a leisurely bike ride to intense cycling will require extra support.

Breast Movement, Dynamic Activities, & Bra Type

PedalChile.com

“The ratio of fat to connective tissue content determines the firmness of the breast”

—  Technology and Health Care

Leisurely cycling & sports bra

Excessive breast movement during activities like jogging and jumping can cause breast discomfort.

However, leisurely cycling on a beach cruiser or commuter bike causes minimal breast movement or discomfort and generally doesn’t require the wearing of a sports bra.

• Leisurely cycling

  • Low impact

  • Minimal forward lean

  • Upright sitting posture: No forward lean as cruiser and commuter bikes are designed for maximum rider comfort and upright sitting

road cycling, exercise-induced breast pain, & sports bra

“As our study shows, everyday bras trigger exercise-induced breast discomfort and cause greater vertical bra movement during chest expansion”

— Journal of Human Sport & Exercise

Road cycling, especially when getting “aero” or riding in the drops places you in a less supportive position. Also, going from seated pedaling to standing, high-speed cornering, and fast braking, all-cause excessive breast movement.

If you are a serious road cyclist or participate in vigorous indoor cycling, it’s recommended to wear a sports bra. 3D motion studies show that breasts move 30% more from a standing position to walking, with over triple the movement going from a walk to a run, with cycling falling in the middle of this range.

You should keep in mind, that for bike touring or long-distance road cycling, having extra support makes you more efficient, even if you don’t have any comfort issues.

Mountain biking & wearing a sports bra

Mountain biking, especially riding technical singletrack and downhilling steep MTB paths, causes large amounts of breast movement and a sports bra should be worn.

Cycling during hormonal changes

Throughout normal hormonal changes during your menstrual cycle, your breasts will be at their most sensitive, which could require extra support and even a different size bra.

Breast pain commonly increases from ovulation and will ease during menstruation. Being in rhythm with your cycles and utilizing the correct bra during the right time is important for your breast comfort and enjoyment of your pedal time. Keep in mind that breasts during this time can be larger and/or heavier, due to increased fluid retention.

Sports bra fit

“A bra can only function properly if it fits you ”

— Breast Research Australia (BRA)

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Design details of the sports bra sample

(Image Source: Zhou, Yu and Ng, 2012)

It does not matter how supportive your bra is if it's not fitting right. Studies estimate that 85% of women are currently wearing the wrong size bra.

If you're currently wearing a sports bra and still experience discomfort, you might be part of the 85% club.

Also, keep in mind that bras have a used by date. Worn bras become stretched and have little elastic properties, which means not much support.

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Dial in your ride with a DIY Professional BikeFitting

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about the authors

Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our resident badass. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBing, snowboarding, reading, taster of craft beers, researcher, & compression sock wearer.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

“This thesis is dedicated to all the female athletes who have felt some how limited by their breasts”

— Brooke R. Brisbine

Sources:

1. Barton, R. (2011). The cycling bible : the complete guide for all cyclists from novice to expert. Guilford, Conn.: Falcon Guides.

2. Breast Research Australia (2008). Sports Bra Fit. [online]

3. Brisbine, B., Steele, J., Phillips, E. and McGhee, D. (2019). Elite female athletes experience breast injuries that affect their performance. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 22, pp.S67–S68.

4. Gefen, A. and Dilmoney, B. (2007). Mechanics of the normal woman’s breast. Technology and Health Care, [online] 15(4), pp.259–271.

5. Gibson, Taylor M et al. “Reductions in Kinematics from Brassieres with Varying Breast Support.” International journal of exercise science vol. 12,1 402-411. 1 Mar. 2019

6. Haake, S. and Scurr, J. (2010). A dynamic model of the breast during exercise. Sports Engineering, 12(4), pp.189–197.

7. Henry, P. (2020). Support your breast friends: A search for the perfect sports bra. [online] Health & HP.

8. Liang, R., Yip, J., Yu, W., Chen, L. and Lau, N.M.L. (2019). Numerical simulation of nonlinear material behaviour: Application to sports bra design. Materials & Design, 183, p.108177.

9. Lu, M., Qiu, J., Wang, G. and Dai, X. (2016). Mechanical analysis of breast–bra interaction for sports bra design. Materials Today Communications, 6, pp.28–36.

10. McGhee, Deirdre E.; Steele, Julie R. Biomechanics of Breast Support for Active Women, Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews: July 2020 - Volume 48 - Issue 3 - p 99-109 doi:

11. Mills, C., Risius, D. and Scurr, J. (2014). Breast motion asymmetry during running. Journal of Sports Sciences, 33(7), pp.746–753.

12. Norris M, Mills C, Sanchez A, et al. Do static and dynamic activities induce potentially damaging breast skin strain? BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine2020;6:e000770. doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000770

13. Risius, D., Milligan, A., Mills, C. and Scurr, J. (2014). Multiplanar breast kinematics during different exercise modalities. European Journal of Sport Science, 15(2), pp.111–117.

14. Schultz, J. (2014). Qualifying times : points of change in US women’s sport. Urbana: Univ. Of Illinois Press.

15. Wang, C.-S., Wang, L.-H., Kuo, L.-C. and Su, F.-C. (2017). Comparison of breast motion at different levels of support during physical activity. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 12(4).

16. Zhou, J., Yu, W. and Ng, S.-P. (2012). Studies of three-dimensional trajectories of breast movement for better bra design. Textile Research Journal, 82(3), pp.242–254.

Do You Wear Underwear With Mountain Bike Shorts

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“Shorts are the most important item of bike clothing as well as the most misunderstood, especially among non-cyclists. ”

— (Edwardes-Evans, 2017)

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Biking Shorts: 3 Functions

Biking shorts have three primary functions and is an important piece of gear for comfortable riding:

1) Make you more aerodynamic

• Only important in cross-country mountain biking (XC-MTB) and road cycling. Most mountain bikers don’t care about aerodynamics and select shorts based on style and comfort.
• MTB shorts are more comfortable than Roadie shorts and also have pockets.

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2) Create a friendly relationship between your butt and seat

• The butt/seat relationship is super important in avoiding saddle sores and skin chafing.
• The sewn-in pad inside the crotch is called a chamois, and adds padding between your butt and the seat or "saddle."

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3) To distribute & dissipate pressure

• To distribute and dissipate the pressure, shock, and vibrations transmitted to your MTB seat/"saddle

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Notice the tight, more aerodynamic biking shorts that this XC-MTB rider is wearing

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Do you wear underwear underneath MTB Shorts?

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“Avoid the rookie mistake of wearing underwear beneath cycling shorts. This defeats the idea of special-purpose cycling shorts. Nothing should come between your skin and the chamois, except, perhaps, some lubrication. ”

— (Pavelka, 2009)

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NO. Both male and female riders should wear their mountain bike shorts DIRECTLY against their skin.

• You do NOT wear underwear beneath mountain biking shorts with a built-in chamois pad

• The MAIN point of the pad is to provide a contact surface that absorbs moisture and does NOT chafe your skin

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Wearing underwear not only defeats the purpose but will lead to:

• Chafing: Cotton underwear becomes abrasive once it’s wet.

• Seams & Ridges: Underwear, regardless of material, creates seams and ridges which are unconformable and lead to saddle sores.

  • Seams for cycle and MTB shorts are located away from delicate areas and are flat-stitched to prevent irritation.

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Notice the baggier and more stylish MTB shorts in more downhill focused mountain biking (less time sitting on the seat)

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If you must wear underwear & mtb shorts

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“Do not wear regular undergarments while using cycling shorts, as the seams of the underwear can cause saddle sores.”

— International Journal of Athletic Therapy and Training

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If you must wear underwear for some reason, wear underwear that has moisture management characteristics, such as Coolmax.

• The pad is designed to absorb perspiration, so if you must wear underwear, you will need to wear an undergarment that absorbs moisture and has the least amount of seams.

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Difference between road & mountain bike shorts

• Generally, road cycling shorts are tight-fitting spandex with a pad (chamois) built into it.

  • Designed to be close-fitting and aerodynamic

  • No pockets - Pockets flap & rattle

  • Roadies spend considerable time in the saddle compared to mountain bikers. If you plan on mountain bike touring or going on long MTB rides, you might want to consider wearing cycling-shorts as they are designed to be ridden for extended time over many miles.

Ricardo (guide for us) wearing cycling shorts on his road bike

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Mountain Bike Shorts

• Mountain biking shorts are generally loose or “baggy” that comes with a removable padded liner (chamois). These shorts look like regular shorts and include pockets. Some mountain bikers (MTBers) especially, downhill (DH) MTBers don’t spend much time in the saddle, these shorts are more comfortable when off the bike but don’t have extended pedal comfort.

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MTB shorts look like regular athletic gear

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WOW! I want 10+ more WATTS of Pedal-Power

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Wash chamois after every ride

As the case with regular underwear, it’s important to wash your chamois after every ride.

• Microbial infestation happens with next-to-skin clothing, especially athletic underwear. Bacteria thrive in a dark, warm, and moist environment, such as your used chamois.

If you don’t wash after every ride, you will be ripe for infections, UTIs, rashes, and saddle sores.

• Wash your padded liner after every ride

• Air dry if you want the chamois to last longer

• Soiled shorts don’t perform as well as freshly washed ones (because of those dirty microbes)

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Click ME to learn about bikefitting a MTB

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBing, snowboarding, reading, taster of craft beers, researcher, & user MTB shorts.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

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Sources for “Do You Wear Underwear With MTB Shorts?”

“Shorts designed for mountain biking have built-in padding, called a chamois, that will increase your comfort and your ability to ride for long periods of time. ”

— From the book: "LET’S MOUNTAIN BIKE!"

1. Bridge, R., Lencicki, J. and Club, S. (2009). Bike touring : the Sierra Club guide to travel on two wheels. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

2. Bury, Keira et al. “Prevalence, Prevention and Treatment of Saddle Sores among Female Competitive Cyclists: A Scoping Review Protocol.” Methods and protocols vol. 3,1 4. 6 Jan. 2020.

3. Edwardes-Evans, L. (2017). Road cycling manual : the complete step-by-step guide. Sparkford: Haynes Publishing.

4. Klinge, Sven. (2000). Mountain biking : the fundamentals. Pubblicazione: Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: New Holland Pub.

5. Miller, M. and Berry, D. (7AD). Back in the Saddle Again: How to Prevent Cycling Saddle Sores. International Journal of Athletic Therapy and Training, 12(4), pp.19–21.

6. Marcolin, Giuseppe et al. “Biomechanical Comparison of Shorts With Different Pads: An Insight into the Perineum Protection Issue.” Medicine vol. 94,29 (2015): e1186. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000001186

7. Molenberg, P. (2019). LET’S MOUNTAIN BIKE! : the complete guide to mountain biking. S.L.: Gatekeeper Press.

8. Pavelka, E. (2009). Bicycling magazine’s complete book of road cycling skills : your guide to riding faster, stronger, longerm and safer. Emmaus, Pa: Rodale Press.

9. Pruitt, A.L. and Matheny, F. (2006). Andy Pruitt’s complete medical guide for cyclists. Boulder, Colo.: Velopress.

Compression Socks During or After Exercise

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Graduated compression stockings (GCS) correctly fitted over legs, flush under the knee, and smoothed to avoid bunching. (Image Source: Ali, Creasy and Edge, 2011).

“Based on our results we recommend athletes wear compression tights for faster recovery, particularly after intense exercise with a pronounced eccentric aspect.”

— Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Compression socks are a special piece of clothing that applies mechanical pressure to the lower leg, which helps stabilize, support, and compress the tissues. Compression therapy started as a form of treatment for varicose veins in the mid-15th century.

Since the late-1980s, compression apparel has been used by elite athletes for training, as they enhance and accelerate recovery and improve performance during long-distance endurance events, such as marathon running and road cycling.

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When is the best time to wear compression socks, during, or after exercise?

• Most of the benefits come AFTER EXERCISING, but by wearing compression during the activity, you will jump-start the recovery process.

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Compression Socks & Athletes

• Faster recovery
• Increased range of motion (>flexibility)
• Blood flows faster back to your heart and lungs
  • More oxygen to your leg muscles
  • Metabolic waste products from training are filtered faster (more efficient recuperation)
• Counteract stasis and hypercoagulability (decreased blood clotting, which is important for older athletes during endurance training)
• Reduce jeg lag

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Normal blood flow through lower legs. Notice the huge drop in pressure with exercise in the feet?? (Image Source: Brown and Brown 1995)

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Compression socks during exercise

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How many runners are wearing compression socks??

The primary benefit of wearing graduated compression socks (CS) is their ability to speed up recovery.

Wearing CS while exercising or engaging in sports, generally doesn’t improve performance, but there are a few exceptions. It should be stated plainly, however, that the main benefit of compression socks is faster recovery, whether you wear compression socks during or after training.

Compression Socks: Endurance Based Sports and Hills

“Compared with the placebo group the compression group had a 5.9% improvement in their run time to exhaustion.”

— Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

“Our present findings suggest that by wearing compression clothing, runners may improve variables related to endurance performance (i.e., time to exhaustion) slightly. ”

— Sports Medicine

For endurance-based sports, such as long-distance running and cycling, wearing compression socks during the activity will lead to slight increases in performance. The main benefits though, show up in the following days, as you will have less muscular pain/soreness and better flexibility.

When running or cycling long distances, particularly if it’s hilly, your muscles will experience micro-trauma and inflammation. As you continue running while fatigued, your jogging mechanics become sloppier. Running while wearing compression socks will increase your muscle temperature, reduce muscle pain & muscle damage, all resulting in less inflammation. This leads to slight increases in performance, but more importantly, this will speed up the recovery process after the activity.

Wearing compression socks while running has shown to improve running efficiency and mechanics, equating to good strides throughout and consistent foot strikes.

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How many strides does it take to run a marathon?

Marathon running has been part of the Olympics since 1896 and covers a distance of 42.195 km or 26.219 miles.

• It takes the "average" marathon runner 20,000 strides
• Standard range is 11,400–26,000 strides

*A step is the movement of one foot. A stride is the movement of both feet

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Resistance Exercises, HIIT & Power-Driven Movements

“A recent meta-analysis, however, concluded a positive effect of compression garments on “recovery” particularly after resistance exercise and prior strength performance.”

— Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) from weight lifting and resistance training results in tiny tears in your muscles. Wearing compression socks as you weight-lift, will reduce the amount of muscular micro-trauma. While this will not allow you to lift more weight or for longer, it does speed up recovery, so you won’t be as sore and can lift more often (#MoreGains).

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Allen Iverson

It’s also beneficial to wear CS during High-Intensity-Interval-Training (HIIT) style workouts, such as CrossFit, spin-class, or sports like tennis and basketball. There are good reasons why Vince Carter, Allen Iverson, and Kobe Bryant all wore compression tights before then-NBA-commissioner David Stern banned the functional apparel from games. Basketball, for example, is a HIIT-style activity with intermittent power-movements, such as jumping and frequent accelerations and decelerations during normal gameplay. This leads to significant muscle damage and muscle soreness, which causes poor shooting and play during back-to-back games, especially on the road.

Compression socks after exercising

“In fact, it has been proved that using compression clothing after exercise assists in the recovery of muscle fatigue.”

— Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy

The vast majority of studies researching compression socks and sports look at compression socks post-exercise. Compression socks won’t hinder performance, and in some cases, will provide a slight boost. All sporting activities and exercise routines that are intense will be aided in recovery and reductions in pain by wearing graduated compression socks following the activity.

What is intense?

If you are sore or fatigued from the activity, especially over the following couple of days, then it’s intense enough where you will benefit from wearing compression socks.

wearing compression socks during & after exercise

“ In conclusion, wearing compression garments during the post-exercise period can be an effective way to reduce DOMS and accelerate the recovery of muscle function”

— Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation 

Athletes regardless of sport/exercise will benefit from wearing compression socks during training and once it has finished because nearly every sporting-activity is endurance or power-based, unless you are a leisurely exerciser.

However, during certain activities, like marathon running, it’s very important to wear compression socks during and after the race.

Activities: Compression Socks During & After

Intense, prolonged activities, such as marathon running, has long been known to increase your risk for transient activation in blood coagulation (clotting), platelet aggregation, and fibrinolytic activity. Which is medical speak for your blood gets more “clumpy” and is the reason that 1 in 1,000 endurance-based contestants will experience a post-exercise blood clot.

Marathon Running & Blood Clots

“About 85% of air travel thrombosis victims are athletic, usually endurance-type athletes like marathoners.”

— Air Health.org

Causes of clots in marathon and long-distance athletes?

• Dehydration - Makes your blood thicker.

• Travel - Many marathon runners and triathletes travel long distances to compete. Sitting in a car, train, bus, or plane for more than 4 hours doubles the chances your blood will clot.

• Repetitive Microtrauma - When you cut yourself, your blood cells (platelets) join together at the cut and form a clot to stop the bleeding. During a 26+ mile run and 20,000 strides later, your muscles are receiving micro-tears, which are like miny papercuts on the inside of your muscles, and your body will increase the thickness or coagulation effect of your blood in an attempt to heal the muscle damage.

• Thick Blood - Endurance athletes, from training, have more oxygen in their blood than most people, which is good for performance. However, these extra red blood cells make your blood thicker.

• Endothelial (arteries) Damage - During exercise, each beat of the heart pushes out more blood than it would at rest. This results in increased pressure that causes damage to your arteries, especially over the distance of 26.2 miles while going as fast as humanly possible.

“Based on blood concentrations levels of marathon runners, those wearing knee-high compression socks have ~30% fewer test-indicators of blood clot inducing enzymes. ”

Once you compound all these factors together and add in additional factors, such as medications (like birth-control) and genetics, it’s easy to see why AirHealth.org says “about 85% of air travel thrombosis victims are athletic, usually endurance-type athletes like marathoners.”

While marathon running disturbs your coagulation and fibrinolytic balance, which is the equilibrium between clotting too much and not clotting at all. The wearing of compression socks maintains this balance, by increasing blood flow and circulation, speeding up the rate of blood purification, detoxification, and re-oxygenation.

How long should you wear compression socks?

Wearing the socks for just 1 or 2 hours isn’t long enough to provide significant benefits.

You should aim to wear the socks for 6+ hours after you have finished the activity.

If you just completed a marathon or long-distance activity, you will want to wear the socks for 6 to 12 hours per day and continue to wear them for the next couple of days after a super intense workout.

In the studies that don’t show positive results, the users didn’t wear the socks long enough to gain any benefits. As the socks speed up blood flow, just increasing circulation for a couple of hours isn’t enough to make a difference, especially considering a super-intense workout can leave your sore for 4 or 5 days.

Also, keep in mind, after the event or workout, you might want to change into a fresh pair of compression socks. As you can see from the picture below, when wearing compression socks in the great outdoors, there are many complex factors in play, which can affect the level of compression.

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Complex interactions among multiple mechanisms and environment

(Image Source: Liu and Little, 2009)

Compression socks: Travel & sports performance

“Jet lag is typically associated with individuals rapidly traveling across three or more meridian time zones; however performance decrements have also been suggested to occur when as few as two time zones are traversed.”

— Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Flying, Jet Lag, & performance

Following intense training or competition, athletes are at higher risk for deep vein thrombosis (DVT)pulmonary embolisms and jet lag, while flying.

• Limited Space

• Cramped seating arrangements

• Minimal bodily movements

• Hypobaric hypoxic environment (less oxygen)

“Jet lag” or circadian dysrhythmia manifests as a general feeling of tiredness, sleep disruption, a lack of concentration and motivation, and/or decreased mental and physical performance and will persist until re-synchronization to your new environment occurs.

It only takes 2 hours of airplane travel to disturb your normal circadian rhythm.

“participants wearing compression in the current study felt less fatigued and sore during travel”

— Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

A 2019 study out of Australia researched elite female volleyball players during an 8-hour flight and the effects of compression socks. The research team concluded, “ sports compression socks maintained exercise performance, and reduced lower-limb swelling” when worn in-flight. The researchers also noted, “this also coincided with improved subjective ratings of alertness, fatigue, muscle soreness, and overall health in participants assigned to wearing compression socks.” 

A general rule of thumb, it takes one day of recovery per time zone crossed. However, when wearing compression socks, the recovery time is 1/2-day or 50% faster, as the resting circulation is improved, leading to increased oxygen in your muscles, improved muscle repair from confined stress configurations, and improved sleep your first night in your new destination.

quick summary

If your an endurance athlete, weight lifter, or involved in HIIT activities, you will benefit from wearing compression socks during and after. For everyone else, if you exercise intensely enough to have lower-body muscle soreness, wear compression socks once finished, for at least six hours. Also, for long-distance road trips or flights, wear compression socks, regardless of the reason for the trip.

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CYCLING HACK: Go FASTER by Using our Artisanal Chain Lubricant that provides superior performance

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBing, snowboarding, reading, taster of craft beers, researcher, & compression sock wearer.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

Sources for: “Should I Wear Compression Socks Before or After Exercise?

1. Ali, A., Creasy, R.H. and Edge, J.A. (2011). The Effect of Graduated Compression Stockings on Running Performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(5), pp.1385–1392.

1. Araujo, A.M., Cardoso, R.K. and Rombaldi, A.J. (2018). Post-exercise effects of graduated compression garment use on skeletal muscle recovery and delayed onset muscle soreness: a systematic review. Motricidade, 14(2–3), pp.129–137.

2. Areces, F., Salinero, J.J., Abian-Vicen, J., González-Millán, C., Ruiz-Vicente, D., Lara, B., Lledó, M. and Del Coso, J. (2015). The Use of Compression Stockings During a Marathon Competition to Reduce Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: Are They Really Useful? Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, [online] 45(6), pp.462–470.

3. Armstrong, S.A., Till, E.S., Maloney, S.R. and Harris, G.A. (2015). Compression Socks and Functional Recovery Following Marathon Running. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29(2), pp.528–533.‌

4. Beliard, Samuel et al. “Compression garments and exercise: no influence of pressure applied.” Journal of sports science & medicine vol. 14,1 75-83. 1 Mar. 2015

5. Broatch, J.R., Bishop, D.J., Zadow, E.K. and Halson, S. (2019). Effects of Sports Compression Socks on Performance, Physiological, and Hematological Alterations After Long-Haul Air Travel in Elite Female Volleyballers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(2), pp.492–501.

6. Brown, J.R. and Brown, A.M. (1995). Nonprescription, padded, lightweight support socks in treatment of mild to moderate lower extremity venous insufficiency. The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 95(3), p.173.

7. Engel, F.A., Holmberg, H.-C. and Sperlich, B. (2016). Is There Evidence that Runners can Benefit from Wearing Compression Clothing? Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), [online] 46(12), pp.1939–1952.

8. GOTO, K. and MORISHIMA, T. (2014). Compression Garment Promotes Muscular Strength Recovery after Resistance Exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 46(12), pp.2265–2270.

9. Hettchen, Michael et al. “Effects of Compression Tights on Recovery Parameters after Exercise Induced Muscle Damage: A Randomized Controlled Crossover Study.” Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM vol. 2019 5698460. 8 Jan. 2019, doi:10.1155/2019/5698460

10. Kim, Jieun et al. “Effect of compression garments on delayed-onset muscle soreness and blood inflammatory markers after eccentric exercise: a randomized controlled trial.” Journal of exercise rehabilitation vol. 13,5 541-545. 30 Oct. 2017.

11. Liu, R. and Little, T. (2009). The 5Ps Model to Optimize Compression Athletic Wear Comfort in Sports. Journal of Fiber Bioengineering and Informatics, 2(1), pp.41–51.

12. MacRae, B.A., Cotter, J.D. and Laing, R.M. (2011). Compression Garments and Exercise. Sports Medicine, 41(10), pp.815–843.

13. ‌‌Priego, J I et al. “Long-term effects of graduated compression stockings on cardiorespiratory performance.” Biology of sport vol. 32,3 (2015): 219-23. doi:10.5604/20831862.1150304

14. Pruscino, C.L., Halson, S. and Hargreaves, M. (2013). Effects of compression garments on recovery following intermittent exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 113(6), pp.1585–1596.

15. Zadow, E.K., Adams, M.J., Wu, S.S.X., Kitic, C.M., Singh, I., Kundur, A., Bost, N., Johnston, A.N.B., Crilly, J., Bulmer, A.C., Halson, S.L. and Fell, J.W. (2018). Compression socks and the effects on coagulation and fibrinolytic activation during marathon running. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 118(10), pp.2171–2177.

16. Zhang, Jun-Ming, and Jianxiong An. “Cytokines, inflammation, and pain.” International anesthesiology clinics vol. 45,2 (2007): 27-37. doi:10.1097/AIA.0b013e318034194e

Sore Forearms & Mountain Biking

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Downhill, freeride, enduro, and cross-county mountain biking all require longs periods of isometric (no movement) contractions, as your arms act as both shock absorber and steerer. All while you are landing jumps, banking sharp turns, and negativing down steep, narrow trails. It’s no wonder many mountain biker’s forearms hurt.

Sore forearms while mountain biking and 4 major factors:

• Improper bike set-up/bike-fit

• Arm-Pump

• Over-use

• Vibrations

3 minutes of mountain biking while gripping the handlebars with 15% effort will reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood through your forearms by 50%.

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Sore forearms, bike fitting, & brake levers

This is the easiest solution and most likely the main cause of forearm discomfort if you are new to mountain biking or are unfamiliar with “bike fitting.”

• Brake Levers - Having your brake levers tilted to far up or down (optimal angle is 30 - 40 degrees)

How to tell if you need to adjust your brake levers?

If you have to adjust your hand-grip while braking or shifting, then you need to make modifications to the position of your levers.

You should be able to ride with your hands on the handlebar grips at all times while only extending a finger or two to brake, shift gears, or adjust your dropper post…..if not, then it’s time for a bike-fit.

In addition to lever positioning, saddle height and handlebar height are important. The less upright you sit, the more weight is being supported by your arms and hands. On a properly fitting mountain bike, about 25% of your weight is supported by your hands, while the rest is supported by the saddle and pedals.

Arm Pump & mountain biking

When you’re barrelling down technical terrain or steep singletrack your forearms start to burn and ache. As you continue the descent, the ache intensifies, soon enough, you can barely hold onto the handlebars, and pulling the brake levers becomes a bitch…….this is called “arm pump.” 

“Arm pump was like having a dead arm”

— HAND (internationally peer-reviewed journal)

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Medically, “arm pump” is known as Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome (CECS) of the forearm.

While mountain biking, especially downhilling in a bike park or riding down steep and technical singletrack, both forearms are continuously exposed to heavy vibrations while maintaining balance on rough and uneven terrain, without an opportunity to relax.

“Of the estimated 300 elite motocross racers in the United States, approximately 85% have symptoms of CECS”

— HAND

Prolonged isometric contractions are necessary to absorb shocks and vibrations caused by the roughness of the trail and stabilization during the handling and landings.

“Arm pump” is also common in motocross (the throttling and significantly heavier bike exacerbate it) and is a problem for many mountain bikers, especially downhillers. The longer, steeper, rougher, and faster you go all work together to fatigue your muscles and if you’re riding a heavy DH mountain bike, this only amplifies it…..as does cold weather.

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Arm Pump Explained

All your muscles are surrounded by a thin, inflexible sheath of connective tissue called fascia.

Image Source: Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology

Mountain biking, especially downhill, makes your forearm muscles work extra-hard, which results in increased blood flow and pressure. The higher the pressure gets, the more your veins and arteries get squished, which results in less blood moving to and from your forearms, causing blood to get trapped. 

Consequently, an imbalance occurs, where your forearms consume more toxic waste-products than nutrients. Because the fresh blood is unable to get to the muscle, while toxic blood is unable to leave, these muscles will not receive nutrients, such as electrolytes or oxygen, and are left to sit a pool of de-oxygenated blood. 

In the short-term, inflammation and soreness is the by-product. In the Long-term, without any interventions or modifications, the result could be arm-pump (Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome of the forearm).

“Muscles are wrapped in fascia, which is much like the casing on sausage. Fascia is strong but inelastic so volume increase causes pressure in the compartment. As pressure increases it engorges the forearm causing the forearm to become rock-like, affecting function.”

— Mark Hamilton

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Mountain biking & tips to reduce arm pump

Optimal Grip Diameter

Image Source: (Chang et al., 2010)

Most MTB handlebar grips have a diameter of 28 to 40mm with the “standard” grip being 30mm.

However, these sizes are too small for many riders. Larger diameter grips allow for a more powerful and stable grip.

So what is the optimal diameter?

• Men - 35mm to 45 mm

• Women - 30 to 40 mm

• Just changing the diameter by 5mm up or down from your optimal size, results in -25% difference in your grip strength

Things to keep in mind:

• Gloves - Wearing gloves adds thickness, which increases the effective grip diameter

• Levers - Bigger handlebar grips may require you to adjust the position of your levers

Gloves

“This range of observations shows that there can be as much as a 23.7% drop in grip strength when wearing gloves.”

—  AIHA Journal

Gloves affect grip strength, comfort, force, and even alter the recruitment and activation of forearm muscles. Many gloves negatively impact grip strength by nearly 25%.

Gloves change the effective grip diameter, and they have a huge impact on your ability to maintain grip strength during a ride and how long it will take before your “gripping” muscles get fatigued.

Thicker and stiffer gloves cause a larger decrease in peak grip force than thinner, more elastic, or flexible gloves. This means that when you wear full-fingered gloves, you need to grip about 10 to 25% more forcefully to actually equal the same amount of force without a glove. This translates to over-gripping and much quicker forearm fatigue and “arm pump.”

“This study showed that cycling gloves had no significant effect on the reduction of vibrations ”

— Sanseverino et al., 2020

The thickest of gloves also changes the length-strength relationship of the flexor and extensor muscles. This loss of gripping ability results in a lowered efficiency and a decrease in performance over time.

Does this mean you shouldn’t wear gloves?

I personally feel “naked” on my MTB if I’m not wearing full-finger gloves.

Fingerless gloves are a quick fix, but if you’re like me and only ride with fingered-gloves, then look for the thinnest, most flexible, and best fitting glove.

Relax

“[The game] is 90% mental, the other half is physical”

— Yogi Berra

Mountain biking, especially navigating new technical singletracks and extreme steeps can cause you to have anxiety, which is your body's way of focusing your attention and amping you up, to prepare you for the ride. While this sounds psychological (mental), which it is, it still alters your physiological (physical) response:

As a result of these thoughts, your body will:

• Produce more catecholamines: Namely adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline.  This will make you more alert and ready, but it also raises your heart rate, blood flow, makes you sweat more, and breathe harder……and as a result, you will grip with significantly more force without even realizing it.

As you continue on your ride, thoughts such as “I hope the next drop is smaller” or “who is riding up behind me?” just cause your body to keep dumping adrenaline (and related hormones) into your body. Once thoughts like these enter your head, it's a great time to stop…...look around, breathe, relax, enjoy the view, and clear your mind.

If you don’t, your ‘death grip’ will cause your heart to pump even more blood, which will get trapped even quicker into your forearms, which just causes them to swell and “burnout.”

Loosen Grip

• Relax your grip every chance you get: This allows de-oxygenated and toxic blood to leave your muscles while freshly oxygentated and filtered blood will come streaming in.

However, keep in mind that just gripping the handlebars with 10 to 20% effort will reduce the oxygen in your forearms by 50% within ~10 minutes. But that is significantly better than gripping with two-thirds of your power, as your forearms won’t be able to hold on for more than a minute.

Strength Training

While you can use a hand-clamp/grip exerciser to target your forearm muscles, there are much better exercises.

Vintage CPC DH-MTB. This bikes weighs over 60lb

Deadlifts, farmers walk, power-clean, hammer curls, finger-tip push-ups, squats, bent-over rows, and pull-ups & hangs will do wonders for your overall conditioning and grip strength. If you want to step it up a notch, try using an extra thick barbell (3-inch bar) and turn every lift into an intense gripping motion.

The grip muscles in your hands and forearm are primarily composed of slow-twitch fibers, allowing you to go long periods before exhaustion. You use these gripping muscles all day long during routine tasks of daily living. Because of this, you need to train these muscles for long duration while using heavy weights (dead-lifts are perfect).

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Breeze-1 - First Mountain Bike hand-built by Joe Breeze in 1971 - - Image Source: (Smithsonian Institution, n.d.)

Want to know what MTB means, as per the inventor of the mountain bike? Read my article and find out!

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Bikes & vibrations

“It is also possible to conclude that, in terms of hand-arm vibrations, the bicycle is more harmful to humans than the motorcycle.”

—  International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics

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Vibration is a mechanical movement that is a form of a mechanical wave, like all waves……..it transfers energy. Due to the consequences of these vibrations, standards, and guidelines in the workplace have been developed to define exposure limits and allow for preventive action. Most Hand-arm Vibrations (HAVs) are transmitted from power tools, but they are also passed-on from the handlebars to the cyclist.

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Are your hands in an optimal position to absorb vibrations? (Image Source: Lépine, Champoux and Drouet, 2013)

Numerous disorders are associated with prolonged or intense exposure to vibrations. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) and Repetitive Stress Injuries (RPI) are the two most common in bicycling. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome is so common that cycling has it own term for it……Cyclist’s Palsy.

There are many different manifestations of HAVS, such as numbness or tingling in the hands, pain and discomfort in your forearm/elbow or loss of GRIP STRENGTH

“Vibration itself results in increased muscle activation”

— Journal of Sports Science & Medicine

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Riding on a flat, rough road, will cause your forearm muscles to work at half-capacity. After a couple hours of pedaling up a rough fire road or old mining road to access singletrack, you forearms are already fatigued from the vibrations. Before bombing down the singletrack, take some time to rest those forearms, even if they don’t feel tired.

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How do you know if you’re affected by HAVS?

Generally, your dominant hand absorbs more vibrations, thus, you will tend to have more pain/symptoms from that hand/arm.

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Cyclists on road bikes experience 2 to 4 times more vibrations compared to mountain bikers riding on the same surface. Why? Mountain bikes have larger tires running at a lower PSI, one or two shock absorbers (suspension), and MTBs don’t have top end gears (more speed on rough roads = more vibrations).

“If bar tape is used however (both with and without gloves), there is a much larger drop in the level of transmitted power and energy through the handlebars,”

— Drouet, Covill and Duarte, 2018

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBing, snowboarding, reading, taster of craft beers, researcher, & compression sock wearer.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

Sources for “Why Do My Forearms Hurt When I Mountain Bike”

Road Cycling & Number of years needed for a 10% possibility of symptoms from vibrations

Adapted from (Roseiro et al., 2016) PedalChile.Com

1. Arpinar-Avsar, Pinar et al. “The effects of surface-induced loads on forearm muscle activity during steering a bicycle.” Journal of sports science & medicine vol. 12,3 512-20. 1 Sep. 2013‌

2. Brown, J.S., Wheeler, P.C., Boyd, K.T., Barnes, M.R. and Allen, M.J. (2011). Chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the forearm: a case series of 12 patients treated with fasciotomy. Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume), 36(5), pp.413–419.

3. Budd, D., Holness, D.L. and House, R. (2018). Functional limitations in workers with hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). Occupational Medicine, [online] 68(7), pp.478–481.

4. Chang, J., Jung, K., Hwang, J., Kang, Y., Lee, S. and Freivalds, A. (2010). Determination of Bicycle Handle Diameters considering Hand Anthropometric Data and User Satisfaction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 54(20), pp.1790–1793.

5. Drouet, J.-M., Covill, D. and Duarte, W. (2018). On the Exposure of Hands to Vibration in Road Cycling: An Assessment of the Effect of Gloves and Handlebar Tape. Proceedings, 2(6), p.213.

6. Hamilton, M. (2006). ELECTIVE PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT SURGERY FOR ATHLETES: SHOULD IT BE RESISTED? Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn, [online] 36(2).

7. Kirkwood, L., Taylor, M., Ingram, L., Malone, E., Florida-James, G. and Kirkwood, L. (2019). Elite mountain bike enduro competition: a study of rider hand-arm vibration exposure. J Sci Cycling, [online] 8(1), pp.18–25.

8. Kong, Y.-K. and Lowe, B.D. (2005). Optimal cylindrical handle diameter for grip force tasks. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 35(6), pp.495–507.

9. Kovacs, K., Splittstoesser, R., Maronitis, A. and Marras, W.S. (2002). Grip Force and Muscle Activity Differences Due to Glove Type. AIHA Journal, 63(3), pp.269–274.

10. Kunal Sindhu, Brian Cohen, Joseph A. Gil, Travis Blood & Brett D. Owens (2019) Chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the forearm, The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 47:1, 27-30, DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2018.1530577

11. Lépine, J., Champoux, Y. and Drouet, J.-M. (2013). Road bike comfort: on the measurement of vibrations induced to cyclist. Sports Engineering, 17(2), pp.113–122.

12. Macdermid, P., Fink, P. and Stannard, S. (2015). The Effects of Vibrations Experienced during Road vs. Off-road Cycling. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(10), pp.783–788.

13. Miller, Elizabeth A et al. “Endoscopic Fascia Release for Forearm Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome: Case Report and Surgical Technique.” Hand (New York, N.Y.) vol. 12,5 (2017): NP58-NP61.

14. Roseiro, L.M., Neto, M.A., Amaro, A.M., Alcobia, C.J. and Paulino, M.F. (2016). Hand-arm and whole-body vibrations induced in cross motorcycle and bicycle drivers. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, [online] 56, pp.150–160.

15. Sanseverino, G., Schwanitz, S., Krumm, D., Odenwald, S. and Lanzotti, A. (2020). Understanding the Effect of Gloves on Hand-Arm Vibrations in Road Cycling. Proceedings, 49(1), p.70.

16. Slane, J., Timmerman, M., Ploeg, H.-L. and Thelen, D.G. (2011). The influence of glove and hand position on pressure over the ulnar nerve during cycling. Clinical Biomechanics, 26(6), pp.642–648.

17. Smithsonian Institution. (n.d.). Breezer 1 Mountain Bike. [online]

18. Stecco C, Macchi V, Porzionato A, Duparc F, De Caro R. The fascia: the forgotten structure. Ital J Anat Embryol. 2011;116(3):127-138.

19. Wimer, B., McDowell, T.W., Xu, X.S., Welcome, D.E., Warren, C. and Dong, R.G. (2010). Effects of gloves on the total grip strength applied to cylindrical handles. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 40(5), pp.574–583.

does hot tub help sore muscles?

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“Muscles recover more quickly if I sit in a tub of hot water, right? WRONG!”

— The Whartons’ Complete Book of Fitness

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There are 4 different methods for using water immersion in recovery:

• Cryotherapy (cold water immersion)

• Thermotherapy (hot water immersion, such as a hot tub)

• Contrast therapy (alternate between hot and cold water)

• Temperate water immersion (temperature is not as important as the effects of hydrostatic pressure and buoyancy)

Does Hot Tubbing help recovery after exercising or cycling?

• There are NO known benefits to muscle recovery, muscle soreness, or increased sports performance following Hot Water Immersion or “hot tubbing.

• According to the research, soaking in hot water can worsen muscle recovery, causing a detriment to subsequent training or sports performances.

Heat Acclimation & Hot Tubbing

The ONLY known benefit to Hot Water Immersion (hot-tubbing) for athletes is heat acclimation adaptations for athletes not acclimated to hot environments.

• Most professional/elite cyclists recover using cold water immersion or contrast therapy.

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Theory vs reality of hot tubs & muscle recovery

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“Although a hot spa may make athletes feel good after a ride, it is likely to have no effect on recovery from performance and may even impede recovery by causing fluid loss through promoting sweat production and delaying post-exercise decreases in core temperature”

— From Cycling Science by Dr. Cheung and Dr. Zabala

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Thermotherapy refers to being immersed in water that raises your core body temperature, which would be water that is hotter than 97°F (36°C) and generally between 100 to 115ºF (38 - 46°C).

Of the 4 types of water immersion techniques, thermotherapy (hot-tubbing) is the least effective, even though nearly every training center, health resort, gym, and sports complex has a hot tub or spa.

The theory behind this form of “therapy” is that the hot water increases the flow of nutrients to muscles after exercising by widening the blood vessels, which improves circulation and blood flow.

However, the research shows only an increase in the surface skin temperature and circulation, as the heat doesn’t penetrate deep enough to affect muscles (heat pads do though, as they are hotter and you wear them longer).

muscle damage & avoiding the spa

After you have been active, your muscles are already heated. There is a reason you do a cool-down after a ride and not a “heat-up.”

Intense physical exertion causes trauma to your muscles, including micro-tears. Cold acts as a natural compression and will help aid recovery by reducing swelling and slowing the flow of blood to traumatized areas. Heat, by contrast, makes the swelling and inflammatory response worse. This is why even hot tub manufacturers do not recommend soaking if you have inflamed muscles.

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Muscle recovery is defined as the return of the muscle to its pre-exercise state following exercise.

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Cycling performance: Science of different water immersion techniques

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“Very little scientific evidence exists to support the use of Hot Water Immersion as a post-exercise recovery intervention.”

— From the International Journal of Sports Medicine

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A 2008 study, published in the International Journal of Sports Medicine compared cold water immersion, hot water immersion, and contrast water therapy as a post-exercise/cycling recovery technique to next day cycling performance.

The results after 14 minutes of hydrotherapy:

• Both Cold Water Immersion (CWI) and Contrast Water Therapy (CWT) enhanced next day cycling performance over 5 days of testing

• Cycle-sprinting was enhanced by both CWI and CWT

• Hot Water Immersion in a spa set at 100°F (38°C) led to nearly a 4% reduction in both sprinting and cycling performance (~4% slower/worse)

While the previous study only looked at next-day performance. How does taking a dip effect sports performance right after a 30-minute soak?

A 2013 study that was published in the European Journal of Applied Physiology, compared cold water immersion, contrast water therapy, and hot water immersion on cycling performance, 40-minutes after soaking.

The researchers’ conclusion:

“Cold water immersion at 15°C (59°F) was the most effective as it was the only treatment that maintained cycling endurance in the subsequent bout”

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Why doesn’t Hot Water Immersion aid athletic recovery?

There are several reasons why, such as:

• The hot water adds an additional strain to your cardiovascular system
• More sweating = promotion of dehydration
• Increased body temperature at a time when you want your body to cool down
• Exacerbates swelling and inflammation

Hot tub manufactures & there “Science”

If you look at any hot tub/spa website or brochure, you will find all the supposed health benefits of hot tubbing, including benefits to muscle recovery from exercise.

A large hot tub/spa company, says on their website, “studies have shown that both heat and cold therapy can promote healing and prevent muscle damage following exercise.”

If you actually read the study that was cited, you will discover that hot tubs and cold tubs were not even tested. Instead, heat packs and cold packs were applied to the skin. In the case of the heat pack, it was applied for 8 hours. The study also happened to be sponsored by Pfizer pharmaceuticals.

Sitting in a hot tub for 20 minutes is hardly comparable to wearing a hot-pack for 1/3 of the day, but I don’t need to point out the obvious.

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I prefer hot springs with a view (Near Pucón, Chile)

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Another large hot tub website says,

“one study found that hot tubs and hydrotherapy helps sore muscles because the soaking reduces lactic acid.”

At least this study actually looked at hydrotherapy, however, hot tubbing was not part of the investigation. This research only looked at Contrast Water Therapy that alternated between 53°F (12°C) water and 97°F (36°C) water baths.

The researchers' conclusion was

“contrast water immersion is a valid and effective means of accelerating recovery from high-intensity exercise in both males and females”

This is good to know. But this is clearly not the same as soaking in a spa or hot tub after a day of riding

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Hot Tubs & Marketing

The reasons these hot tub companies resort to “trickery” is because there are no real benefits to hot tubbing for muscular recovery or sports performance (unless acclimatizing to hot environments).

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Saunas vs hot tub & recovery

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“Sauna bathing, an activity that has been a tradition in Finland for thousands of years and mainly used for the purposes of pleasure and relaxation”

— From the Mayo Clinic Proceedings

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Hot tubs and saunas are both equally ineffective at promoting muscle recovery and subsequent sports performance. Saunas, like hot tubs, increase core body temperature, which places considerable strain on the thermoregulatory and circulatory systems, especially right after exercising.

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Why is a sauna bad for sports/exercise recovery?

Many bodily systems are activated to maintain a healthy temperature. As a result, your heart rate doubles, you sweat profusely, blood flow becomes altered, and your body releases cortisol and catecholamines.  

All of which impose additional stress after you just stressed the body sufficiently by exercising or engaging in intense physical activity.

Sauna bathing for endurance training

If you are looking to add sauna bathing to your training regimen (as opposed to recovery strategy) there are some benefits. Most notably, an expansion of plasma volume, which will improve endurance performance as the physiological responses are similar to those produced during vigorous walking (for sedentary and out of shape people).

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“75% of the participants recorded slower performance times after the sauna intervention”

— From the International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

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Final thought

Hot tubs certainly feel wonderful, but that is the extent of their benefit for muscle recovery and won’t do anything for your riding performance.

If you are looking for some easy to implement post-exercise recovery strategies, you can always try compression socks, massage, naps, or contrast water therapy (~15-minutes).

If you just want to relax while soaking in a tub of hot water under the stars, then cheers.

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For some easy to implement recovery tips, check out my blog on “Recovery Techniques”

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBing, snowboarding, reading, taster of craft beers, & researcher.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

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Sources ‌for “Hot Tub & Muscle Recovery”

1. Al Haddad, H., et al., Effect of cold or thermoneutral water immersion on post-exercise heart rate recovery and heart rate variability indices, Auton. Neurosci. (2010), doi:10.1016/j.autneu.2010.03.017

2. Burke, Darren G. et al. “Effects of Hot or Cold Water Immersion and Modified Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Flexibility Exercise on Hamstring Length.” Journal of athletic training vol. 36,1 (2001): 16-19.

3. Cheung, S.S. and Zabala, M. (2017). Cycling science. Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics.

4. Crampton, D., Donne, B., Warmington, S.A. and Egaña, M. (2013). Cycling time to failure is better maintained by cold than contrast or thermoneutral lower-body water immersion in normothermia. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 113(12), pp.3059–3067.

5. Laukkanen, J.A., Laukkanen, T. and Kunutsor, S.K. (2018). Cardiovascular and Other Health Benefits of Sauna Bathing: A Review of the Evidence. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, [online] 93(8), pp.1111–1121.

6. Leicht, C.A., James, L.J., Briscoe, J.H.B. and Hoekstra, S.P. (2019). Hot water immersion acutely increases postprandial glucose concentrations. Physiological Reports, 7(20).

7. Morton, R.H. (2007). Contrast water immersion hastens plasma lactate decrease after intense anaerobic exercise. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 10(6), pp.467–470.

8. Petrofsky, J.S., Khowailed, I.A., Lee, H., Berk, L., Bains, G.S., Akerkar, S., Shah, J., Al-Dabbak, F. and Laymon, M.S. (2015). Cold Vs. Heat After Exercise—Is There a Clear Winner for Muscle Soreness. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29(11), pp.3245–3252.

9. Scoon, G.S.M., Hopkins, W.G., Mayhew, S. and Cotter, J.D. (2007). Effect of post-exercise sauna bathing on the endurance performance of competitive male runners. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 10(4), pp.259–262.

10. Skorski, S., Schimpchen, J., Pfeiffer, M., Ferrauti, A., Kellmann, M. and Meyer, T. (2019). Effects of Postexercise Sauna Bathing on Recovery of Swim Performance. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, pp.1–7.

11. Vaile, J., Halson, S., Gill, N. and Dawson, B. (2008). Effect of Hydrotherapy on Recovery from Fatigue. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 29(7), pp.539–544.

12. Wardle, Jonathan. (2013). Hydrotherapy: A forgotten Australian therapeutic modality. Australian Journal of Medical Herbalism. 25. 12-17.

13. Wharton, J., Wharton, P. and Browning, B. (2002). The Whartons’ complete book of fitness. New York: Three Rivers Press.

14. Wilcock, I.M., Cronin, J.B. and Hing, W.A. (2006). Physiological Response to Water Immersion. Sports Medicine, 36(9), pp.747–765.

15. Zurawlew, M.J., Mee, J.A. and Walsh, N.P. (2019). Post-exercise Hot Water Immersion Elicits Heat Acclimation Adaptations That Are Retained for at Least Two Weeks. Frontiers in Physiology, 10.

Do I Need Cycling Socks

“There are socks and there are cycling socks, and never twain shall meet!”

— From the book, "Road Cycling Manual"

It’s not difficult to see that sports apparel technology has been making great advancements, particularly regarding our footwear.

Socks are no longer a pair of fabric that simply cover the feet to keep us warm, but items well developed for different specialized activities, environment, and other factors that collectively ensure comfort and optimal performance no matter the situation.

Proper cycling socks, in particular, are a piece of modern tech that adds an impeccable touch of style to an astute rider’s cycling kit.

Cycle-specific socks are:

• Thin and stretchy, which fit snugly in your cycling shoe.

• Made out of Merino wool or synthetic fibers that will wick/absorb sweat.

• Double cuffed, which will grip your leg/ankle.

Cycle-specific socks will not slip, bunch-up, and are thin so they don’t move around causing blisters or pedal inefficiencies.

cycling sock & close-fitting

Cycle-specific socks are thin and stretchy that fit into your cycling shoe like a liner.

Cycling socks are created with a flawless close-fitting element that works in tandem with other components like high thread count and practical design to give you fewer pressure points that can result from micro-vibrations, and seams within the sock’s lining.

That is the ultimate recipe for unmatched comfort over long periods, which makes it ideal for those prolonged moments in your saddle.

Cycling socks: Merino wool vs synthetic fibers

Over the last two decades, the materials manufacturers use to create cycling socks have gone through a radical change; and synthetic fibers are now popularly being used instead of natural fibers. Companies argue that synthetic materials like polyester and nylon can be woven closer together, allowing the sock to stretch or adjust properly according to the shape of the foot, reduce the road grime from getting into the fibers, and wick moisture a lot more efficiently.

The fact that cycling socks are generally created to be thin and snug makes them more important than regular socks to ensure the effort you put into your leg movement while cycling transfers into pedal movement efficiently (note that a flexing shoe diverts some pedaling energy into the overall shoe movement).

Ricardo (far right) who is one of our guides is enjoying a ride in his native Chile.

But are synthetic socks ideal?

Unfortunately, they aren’t.

Merino socks are the real deal

Most manufacturers are doing a great job making synthetic cycling socks- but if you ask me, and any sports professional out there, merino socks are still unbeatable- pretty much like their merino sportswear counterparts such as t-shirts and base layers.

“Most cycling socks are made from a lightweight knit of polyester. Some manufacturers offer merino wool socks, which offer the added benefit of keeping the feet warm in cool weather and cool in hot weather. ”

— Patrick Brady

Merino wool has countless qualities that make it the right material for all the times you need your feet to handle pressure, extreme temperatures, and other factors that can only be experienced in the great outdoors.

Merino wool comprises fibers that have all the qualities to ensure comfort, temperature regulation (keeping your feet cool or warm depending on the environment), and durability.

More specifically, merino socks are:

Soft and snuggly

Ever struggled with cycling because of an itch that won’t stop?

Maybe you’ve heard stories from other people- especially those who wear regular wool socks depicting the struggle. Merino is great if you want to evade the occasional irritation because its fibers are a lot less coarse and thinner than regular wool.

Lightweight

Since merino socks comprise fine fibers, you can imagine that they’re very light – lighter than regular wool socks at least. Anything lightweight wear is ideal for sports even outside cycling- but that’s not all. Lightweight socks are lighter to the feet, thus easier to wear comfortably with shoes and great if you want to avoid blisters.

Odor resistant

Odor is by far the biggest issue when it comes to sports, and particularly cycling. More people dump relatively new socks because of their odor more often than you can imagine.

Did you know that merino socks are made of fibers that deter bacteria? The merino wool also absorbs the odor caused by bacteria, thus trapping the smell and keeping it from accumulating. With merino socks, therefore, you can cycle longer with less worry about scaring your way out of your cycling club again!

Strong and durable

If you are a regular biker, then you know pretty well how fast garments including socks can get torn or break especially during long journeys. The best thing about merino wool is that it is six times stronger than regular cotton, and each one of its fibers can be effectively bent back onto itself over 20,000 times.

A good cotton-based pair of socks will readily break after only 3,200 times! Before the merino socks are produced, they are exposed to a rigorous field test. They pass the test because of the remarkable natural engineering they possess.

Breathable and wick away sweat

Heavy socks are not the only thing that leads to blisters.

Sweaty feet also contribute to the problem massively, and that’s why you need socks made from a material that offers excellent moisture management and resist the buildup of odor.

You also need socks with a material that naturally provides mesh ventilation panels to boost comfort and breath-ability. Merino socks are perfect here because they offer all these benefits naturally. Through capillary action, the socks draw moisture from the source to the surface for evaporation. When this effect is combined with the breath-ability component that is typical of cycling socks, the end result is perfection.

 Cycling sock: Double layer Cuffs

The very top part of a sock is called the cuff, and its primary function is to make the sock cling to your leg. Great cycle-specific socks are double-cuffed, which means they are made with a double-layer of fabric at the top, providing a more secure fit. Nothing is worse than wearing a pair of socks that slide down during a ride with your friends.

Bottom line

It is important to wear socks before you cycle to maximize your performance and comfort. As we’ve seen, however, not all cycling socks are created equal. There are great socks made with excellent modern technology but not a single one of them would beat the good old merino wool cycling socks. You know where to go from here, don’t you?

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our resident badass. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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Sources:

• Brady, P. (2011). The no-drop zone : everything you need to know about the peloton, your gear and riding strong. Birmingham, Al: Menasha Ridge Press.

• Edwardes-Evans, L. (2017). Road cycling manual : the complete step-by-step guide. Sparkford: Haynes Publishing.

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Difference Between Freewheel & Cassette?

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Image Source: (YADAV, SINGH VERMA ,and Farkya, 2015)

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“The gears on the back of your bike are generically referred to as a cluster, but there are really two totally different systems - freewheels and cassettes ”

— Christopher Wiggins

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The rear cogs (gears) are attached to the hub by two different hub systems:

• Cassette hub/freehub

• Freewheel

Although cassettes and freewheels perform the same function (allow you to coast when you stop pedaling) and look almost identical, they have significant mechanical differences and are NOT interchangeable.

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What is the main difference between freewheel and cassette hub?

• The freewheel is a single-unit and the act of pedaling tightens the freewheel to the hub. Whereas the cassette hub is a set of gears (cogs) that slides onto a cassette and is held in place by a lock ring.

Both the cassette and freewheel have a FreeHub, which is responsible for coasting.

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“The freehub allows the bike to “freewheel” - to coast without engaging the gears ”

— From the book "The Mountain Bike Experience"

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cassette hub/freehub/unit hub

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“The concept of a ‘cassette’ or unit hub was devised and manufactured by British company Bayliss-Wiley in 1938 and won the Cyclists Touring Club (CTC) award for that year”

— Innovare Journal of Engineering & Technology

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• Free Hub - The first widely successful commercial cassette hub was developed in 1978 by Shimano. Free Hub is a registered trademark of Shimano.

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Want to Go Faster for only $27??

Freewheels

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“An alternative system to the cassette and freehub is the “freewheel””

— Big Blue Book of Bicycle Repair

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Before the 1980s, nearly all bicycles used the screw-on freewheel system. With this hub system, the cogs are attached directly to the hub. As the cyclist pedals, the freewheel is continuously kept tight due to the chain torque.

Two main drawbacks of freewheels:

1. Removing the freewheel is one of the main drawbacks of this system as the high torque from pedaling tightens the freewheel to the hub

2. The bearings are closer together, which equates to lessened leverage compared to the cassette (the cassette is stronger)

• Freewheel is both a verb and a noun. As a verb, “freewheel” means “to coast.”

Descending before the ability to “freewheel.”

Freewheels:

• Found on entry-level bikes (less expensive)
• Vintage bikes use the freewheel hub system

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How to know if you have a freewheel or cassette??

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The simplest way to know if you have either a freewheel or cassette is to look at the rotating action of the innermost tool fitting:

1. Take off the back wheel

2. Spin the gears backward

   • Cassette = tool fitting spins along with the gears

   • Freewheel = tool fitting does NOT rotate along with the gears

*** Look for the innermost tool fitting as some rings will have several tool fittings

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Need help reaching your athletic goals??

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Snowboarding, reader of non-fiction, researcher, & rides MTBs with cassettes.

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More Articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources:

1. Brown, Sheldon. “Freewheel or Cassette?” Www.Sheldonbrown.Com, 2 Aug. 2020.

2. C  Calvin Jones (2013). Big blue book of bicycle repair : a do-it-yourself bicycle repair guide from Park Tool. Saint Paul, Mn: Park Tool Co.

3. C  Calvin Jones (2019). Big blue book of bicycle repair : a do-it-yourself bicycle repair guide from Park Tool. Saint Paul, Mn: Park Tool Co.‌

4. King, Dave, and Michael Kaminer. The Mountain Bike Experience : A Complete Introduction to the Joys of off-Road Riding. New York, Henry Holt And Company, 1996.

5. Park Tool. (2017). Determining Cassette / Freewheel Type. [online]

6. Wiggins, Christopher. Bike Repair & Maintenance. New York, New York, Usa, Alpha, A Member Of The Penguin Group (Usa) Inc, 2014.

7. YADAV, R., SINGH VERMA, N. and Farkya, P. (2015b). Performance of Hybrid System for Automobile. Innovare Journal of Engineering & Technology, 3(1).

Why Do Nurses Wear Compression Socks

Why do many nurses wear compression socks?

Knee-high graduated compression socks are used to aid in the prevention of varicose & spider veins, swelling, blood pooling, night cramps, leg fatigue, and to relieve foot & leg pain as nurses & health care providers spend hours standing during a 12-hour shift.

Why prolonged standing is bad: Blood flow & your Calf muscle

With each beat of your heart, your body pumps freshly oxygenated blood through your arteries, while “old” blood is pumped back to your lungs and heart through your veins.

Image Source: (Johnson, 2002)

When you stand, due to the additional resistance of gravity, the blood that flows down to your legs and feet, needs additional assistance to get back to your heart and lungs for re-oxygenation and detoxification.

The superficial veins, deep veins, bicuspid valves, and the calf-pump, all work together to move blood back to your lungs. The primary driving force of this entire process comes from your calf muscle pump. However, it’s the walking motion that activates your calf pump as the contraction of your calf muscle pushes blood up. When your calf muscle relaxes, this allows blood to refill in empty vein segments and the next walking step keeps the cycle going.

“The terminology varicose vein is derived from Latin language, which means “unnaturally and permanently distended veins””

— International Surgery Journal

Standing, by contrast, doesn’t activate the powerful calf muscle pump since the muscle needs to be contracted to pump blood. This means that the veins of the lower leg have to do the work on their own and that requires them to create high amounts of pressure. Extended periods of high pressure through these veins can cause them to stretch, which also allows blood to flow backward, as the one-way-valves are no longer “air-tight” due to the veins being stretched beyond the valves.

This results in edema, swelling, blood pooling, inflammation, varicose veins, and spider veins, along with a host of other health problems.

compression socks & activation of your calf-muscle-pump

Knee-length graduated compression socks work by applying external compression that is controlled due to the socks being graduated. The compression sock is tightest at the ankle/foot and gradually lessens in pressure towards the knee.

“Compression stockings are clinically effective”

— New England Journal of Medicine

Also, external pressure activates the calf pump, which along with the enhanced pressure gradient speeds up blood flow back to your heart

When you must stand for extended periods, the best way to activate the calf-pump is through external compression, which has the same activating action as walking. This is why compression socks are worn by nurses and shift workers who spend hours standing on their feet.

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The amount of blood pumped out of your heart in 1-minute is known as cardiac output. Your cardiac output is 20-30% lower when standing as opposed to lying down (about venous return).

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Compression socks & varicose veins

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One of the main reasons, besides relieving leg/foot pain that nurses wear compression socks is to help avoid getting varicose or spider veins.

A team of researchers in Denmark followed a group of nearly 5,700 Danish workers over 12 years and determined that workers who stood for more than 6+ hours of their work-shift were at significantly greater risk for varicose veins than those who stood for less than 4 hours.

As nurses must stand for hours, especially OR and ER nurses, who could be standing for over 12-hours straight, a simple, cost-effective, and easy way to keep the blood flowing properly and prevent varicose veins is by wearing compression socks.

Standing: How long is too long?

According to the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety:

“Working in a standing position on a regular basis can cause sore feet, swelling of the legs, varicose veins, general muscular fatigue, low back pain, stiffness in the neck and shoulders, and other health problems”

— The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety

So what is the “ideal” amount of time spent standing per day?

According to Dutch ergonomic guidelines for prolonged standing:

• Green (safe zone) = Not more than 1 hour of continuous standing and not more than 4 hours of total standing per day
• Amber (action recommended) = More than 1 hour of continuous standing OR more than 4 hours of standing in total
• Red (direct action required) = More than 1 hour of continuous standing AND more than 4 hours of standing in total

“In addition, more than one hour’s uninterrupted standing occurred on almost two-thirds of the working days. This is a more difficult problem to solve, because surgeries
sometimes last many hours.”

— AORN Journal

A 2007 study from the Netherlands studied nearly 250 operating room (OR) nurses in 16 dutch hospitals with the “goal of being able to develop a targeted injury prevention policy.”

In certain situations, like when performing surgery, it’s impossible not to stand. Here are some recommendations from the Dutch study:

• Take a micro-break or change posture - “During microbreaks and changes of posture, the muscles have the chance to relax. The flow of blood is restored, oxygen is supplied, and waste matter is carried away and joints can once again be lubricated.”

• Rotate job duties

• Use a stool

While this study made some good recommendations, it was mostly focused on policy changes. In the real world of accidents and chaos, it can be impossible to slip out for a micro-break or rotate jobs, which is why many nurses choose to wear knee-high compression socks.

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Looking for expert Performance Coaching?

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBing, snowboarding, meditation, reader of non-fiction, researcher, & compression sock wearer.

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More Articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources for “Why Do Nurses Wear Compressions Socks”

1. DePopas, Eric, and Matthew Brown. “Varicose Veins and Lower Extremity Venous Insufficiency.” Seminars in interventional radiology vol. 35,1 (2018): 56-61. doi:10.1055/s-0038-1636522

2. Johnson, S. (2002). Compression hosiery in the prevention and treatment of venous leg ulcers. Journal of Tissue Viability, 12(2), pp.67–74.

3. Meijsen, P. and Knibbe, H.J.J. (2007). Prolonged Standing in the OR: A Dutch Research Study. AORN Journal, 86(3), pp.399–414.

4. Raju, S. and Neglén, P. (2009). Chronic Venous Insufficiency and Varicose Veins. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(22), pp.2319–2327

5. Shankar H., K. (2017). Clinical study of varicose veins of lower limbs. International Surgery Journal, 4(2), p.633.

6. Tüchsen F., Hannerz, H. and Burr, H. (2005). Prolonged standing at work and hospitalisation due to varicose veins: a 12 year prospective study of the Danish population. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 62(12), pp.847–850

7. Waters, Thomas R, and Robert B Dick. “Evidence of health risks associated with prolonged standing at work and intervention effectiveness.” Rehabilitation nursing : the official journal of the Association of Rehabilitation Nurses vol. 40,3 (2015): 148-65. doi:10.1002/rnj.166

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Cycling Recovery Tips/Techniques

Large amounts of cash are spent on cycling, all in the hopes of getting faster by buying “better” shoes, clothing, lube, bikes, and components. However, one of the most effective, easiest, and least costly ways to improve performance is through enhanced recovery techniques.

1) quality sleep

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“Optimal sleep quality and quantity is considered the single best recovery strategy available to athletes.”

— From the book, "Cycling Science"

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Studies show that just one night of bad sleep after a hard day of cycling reduces maximum power output the following day by 5%.

• Fellow cyclists who get their typical night of rest under the same conditions only lose 1% of their maximum power.

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“It’s often said that the rider who wins the Tour is the one who’s slept the best. ”

— From "The Science of the Tour De France"

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So what makes sleep so important?

Sleep is widely regarded as the most important recovery strategy for athletes, yet is the least understood…..mainly due to the complexities involved.

The beneficial effects of sleep concerning cycling performance are multiplex and involve multitudinous interactions of the circadian rhythm, metabolic activities, immune function, thermo-regulation, blood flow, mood, and hormonal effects.

During deep sleep, metabolic activities, such as heart rate, breathing, and blood flow to the brain, are at their lowest. It’s at this low-point, your body increases the release of restorative hormones, such as growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone. These 3 hormones are classified as “anabolic steroids,” which means they aid in the repair of muscles and bones.

Hormones & Sleep

The majority of these anabolic hormones are ONLY released during sleep. However, even slight sleep disturbances will throw off their balance. When that happens, your body will halt their production and begin to release cortisol, which is a hormone that helps you deal with stress. Increased cortisol production will make you hyper-alter, which makes going to sleep even harder, thus reducing your anabolic hormone production even further.

Noise, light, and temperature are the 3 main factors affecting sleep quality:

• Fluctuating noise is worse than constant noise. For example, a dog barking is more disturbing to sleep than the constant sounds coming from ventilation equipment or the low humming of a fan

• The sleep-wake cycle follows darkness-light cycles. Appropriately timed light exposure and light avoidance is key to getting a good night sleep and is also an effective treatment of jet lag

• Sleep is HIGHLY regulated by temperature. You fall asleep when your body temperature decreases and wake when it rises. If you are unable to get your body temperature to drop, or if it drops too much, you will not sleep (insomnia)

Sleep: Optimal Sleeping Temperature

The Optimal room temperature for sleeping = 66 to 70°F (19 - 21°C).

• 62 to 82°F (17 - 28°C) is the “extended” range of sleeping temps

• Ideal skin temperature = 88 to 95°F (31 - 35°C)

  • Optimal skin temp without clothes or bedding (like a caveman) = 82–83°F (~28°C)

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Race Across America & Sleep

The Race Across AMerica (RAAM) is a continuous race (no stages) that goes from California to Maryland, a distance of 3,016 miles (4,856km). The solo rider winner finishes the race in 7 to 8 days and averages less than 2 hours of sleep per day. The “typical” contestant averages about 2 hours and 20 minutes of sleep per day.

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2) Active Cool-down (low-intensity cycling)

“A progressive cool-down on the turbo trainer of around 10 minutes helps to remove metabolic waste products from the working muscles simply by maintaining a reasonable blood flow around the body.”

— From the book, "Science of the Tour De France: Training Secrets of the World’s Best Cyclists"

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An active cool-down, such as easy pedaling around the parking lot, helps remove metabolic waste products, like free radicals. If you just stop dead and head straight to the car or craft bar, waste products just sit in the muscle and inhibit the recovery process.

How to cool down?

• Cool-down with 10-12 minutes of easy spinning

• If you don’t have a turbo trainer, you can cycle a few laps around the parking lot or switch shoes and slow jog into a walk for a dozen minutes

10-minutes of easy pedaling will remove lactic acid faster than simply resting and prevents blood pooling, which will reduce the onset of muscle soreness.

3) Compression Socks

“Athletes wearing compression stockings recovered faster than athletes not wearing them”

— James Witts

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The compression socks are really an extension of the cool-down phase. You cool-down to facilitate the removal of lactic acid and free radicals and to keep blood from pooling.

Compression socks also aid in the removal of metabolic waste products and increase blood flow, which will continuously supply your working muscles with fresh oxygenated blood that is free of waste products. The compression also limits inflammation. This means that you get numerous restorative benefits by doing nothing more than wearing a pair of socks…albeit specialized graduated compression socks.

So I can wear just any tight socks?

No. You must wear knee-high graduated compression socks. These socks are tightest around your ankle and gradually reduce pressure as you go up to your knee, with the lowest pressure being just above your calf muscle. If the socks are not graduated, not only will they not work, but they can actually be worse than wearing no socks at all. 

For more info on graduated compression socks, check out this article, where I have detailed all the benefits!

4) Foam Rolling or massage

“Foam rolling effectively reduced delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and associated decrements in most dynamic performance measures.”

— From the Journal of Athletic Training

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Foam rolling is a form of self-massage that allows the user to apply pressure and friction to specific muscles.

What are the benefits of foam rolling?

I self-massage daily…with foam rollers or balls

• Short-term increases in flexibility

• Alleviation of muscle soreness

• Increase of blood flow to the muscles

• Mechanical breakdown of scar tissue

• Increased intramuscular temperature

How to Foam Roll? (quick summary)

1. Place your weight on a ball/foam roller and relax (don’t move)

2. Feel your body “give” in (usually takes 60 seconds minimum per spot)

3. Breathe fully to bring oxygen to the muscle

5) Naps

“There are two “ideal” time durations for a nap.”

— From the journal "Nature and Science of Sleep"

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About 95% of your daily production of growth hormone (GH) is released while you sleep.

Growth Hormone (GH) aids in the repair (and growth) of both muscles and bones. The main reason that pro-athletes take naps is to increase their GH as more sleep is the best way to increase Growth Hormone…….at least legally.

Why is Growth Hormone (GH) so important?

• Repairs and strengthens muscles and bones

• During sleep, it assists the body in burning fat instead of sugars

• Promotes electrolyte balance

• Produces chemicals that help buffer lactate (helps improve lactate threshold)

• Enhances glucose transport during cycling

Napping & Improved Cycling Performance & Recovery

• There are two ideal nap durations

  • 20-minutes - Avoids you from waking up during the ‘slow-wave’ sleep cycle and feeling groggy

  • 90-minutes - This allows for a complete sleep cycle

• Nap in the afternoon is better than a mid-morning nap 

6) Meditation

“Investigations indicate that reactivity and recovery variables relevant to sports, such as blood lactate concentration, heart rate (HR), and oxygen uptake (VO2), are decreased following meditation”

— British Journal of Sports Medicine

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Only 10 to 20 minutes a day of meditation, which doesn’t cost a cent (unless you pay some TM coach thousands of dollars for a “word”) will improve your sleep, boost your immune system, reduce pain, and help put you into a state of flow once your back on the bike.

For those of you who are freighted by the thought of sitting still for even 10 minutes while your “smart” phone is limited to being a stopwatch, then this recovery technique is for you.

7) Recovery drink/food

After finishing your ride, cool-down, and putting on your compression socks, the most important thing you can do to speed up recovery is to replace the sugars, proteins, and fats your body just burned.

A 2015 study, published in the International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism researched post-exercise recovery foods and compared recovery sports supplements to fast foods.

The researchers had participants cycle for 90-minutes, followed by 4-hours of rest and food & drink, and then jump back on the bike and cycle a 12 mile (20km) time trial. During the 4-hour rest period, the cyclist ate and drank either commercially available recovery drinks/bars or fast foods.

The results:

• There was no detectable difference between muscle glycogen, cholesterol, blood glucose, or blood lipids

• No difference between absorption and digestion of the carbs and proteins

• No difference in time trials

The researchers' conclusion:

“fast food sources matched isoenergetically to sports supplements can provide for basic recovery needs of the muscle and may offer a convenient and economical approach to glycogen recovery under some circumstances.”

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Any Balanced Meal Will Do After Cycling

After an intense bike ride, almost any balanced meal and drink will do. The first 30-45 minutes after riding, your body is several times more capable of absorbing and replenishing carbohydrate and protein stores, so it’s important to eat immediately after riding. However, what you eat is less important than the act of eating something soon after finishing your ride.

8) Alcohol & caffeine in moderation

“The dose makes the poison ”

— Accredited to Swiss physician and chemist Paracelsus

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Having a few cups of coffee or a couple of beers does not affect sleep quality and quantity. However, 3+ alcoholic drinks cause disturbances in REM-sleep, particularly during the early part of the sleep cycle.

Homemade Boozy Shakerato - espresso and alcohol - If interested in making it read my post)

It’s not uncommon for people to fall into the “stimulation-sedation loop” by drinking a few french presses of coffee in the morning and ending the day with a couple of bottles of wine.

Drinking in excess lowers muscle repairing hormones, such as HG and testosterone, while also reducing your production of melatonin, causes sleep fragmentation and disturbances. Also, your immune system becomes weakened because your body is unable to produce several pro-inflammatory molecules.

But with that said, as with most things in life, everything in moderation. A couple of alcoholic drinks will actually increase testosterone and decrease stress, both of which will aid you in your post-ride recovery.

What doesn’t work According to “science”

• Contrast Showers - Alternating between hot and cold water while showering. Studies generally find that athletes “perceive benefits,” but researchers are unable to detect any performance enhancements. Its possible athletes don’t spend enough time contrast showering. The few studies that do show benefits, the shower lasts 16 minutes and alternates between hot and cold water every minute, which is about double the length of a typical shower. (~34 gallons or 129 liters of water…just an FYI)

• Cold/Hot Water Immersion - Same results as contrast showers

• Stretching - “There is no evidence to date to suggest that stretching immediately post-exercise enhances the recovery of performance.” (Quote from the Australian Institute of Sport). There are more studies showing the benefits of fast food after exercising than stretching.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBer, snowboarder, meditation, reader of non-fiction, researcher, taster of yummy craft beers, foam rolling, and compression sock wearer.

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More articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources and references:

1. Barnes, M.J. (2014). Alcohol: Impact on Sports Performance and Recovery in Male Athletes. Sports Medicine, 44(7), pp.909–919.

2. Caddick, Z.A., Gregory, K., Arsintescu, L. and Flynn-Evans, E.E. (2018). A review of the environmental parameters necessary for an optimal sleep environment. Building and Environment, 132, pp.11–20.

3. Chennaoui, M., Arnal, P.J., Sauvet, F. and Léger, D. (2015). Sleep and exercise: A reciprocal issue? Sleep Medicine Reviews, 20, pp.59–72.

4. Cheung, S.S. and Zabala, M. (2017). Cycling science. Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics.‌

5. Cramer, M.J., Dumke, C.L., Hailes, W.S., Cuddy, J.S. and Ruby, B.C. (2015). Postexercise Glycogen Recovery and Exercise Performance is Not Significantly Different Between Fast Food and Sport Supplements. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 25(5), pp.448–455.

6. Godfrey, R.J., Madgwick, Z. and Whyte, G.P. (2003). The Exercise-Induced Growth Hormone Response in Athletes. Sports Medicine, 33(8), pp.599–613.

7. Harding, E.C., Franks, N.P. and Wisden, W. (2019). The Temperature Dependence of Sleep. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13.

8. Lahart, I. M., Lane, A. M., Hulton, A., Williams, K., Godfrey, R., Pedlar, C., Wilson, M. G., & Whyte, G. P. (2013). Challenges in Maintaining Emotion Regulation in a Sleep and Energy Deprived State Induced by the 4800Km Ultra-Endurance Bicycle Race; The Race Across AMerica (RAAM). Journal of sports science & medicine, 12(3), 481–488.

9. O’Donnell, S., Beaven, C. and Driller, M. (2018). From pillow to podium: a review on understanding sleep for elite athletes. Nature and Science of Sleep, Volume 10, pp.243–253.

10. Pearcey, G.E.P., Bradbury-Squires, D.J., Kawamoto, J.-E., Drinkwater, E.J., Behm, D.G. and Button, D.C. (2015). Foam Rolling for Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness and Recovery of Dynamic Performance Measures. Journal of Athletic Training, [online] 50(1), pp.5–13.

11. Rae, D.E., Chin, T., Dikgomo, K., Hill, L., McKune, A.J., Kohn, T.A. and Roden, L.C. (2017). One night of partial sleep deprivation impairs recovery from a single exercise training session. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(4), pp.699–712.

12. ‌Solberg, E.E., Ingjer, F., Holen, A., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Nilsson, S. and Holme, I. (2000). Stress reactivity to and recovery from a standardised exercise bout: a study of 31 runners practising relaxation techniques. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(4), pp.268–272.

13. Vaile, J., Hanson, S. and Graham, S. (2010). RECOVERY REVIEW – SCIENCE VS. PRACTICE. [online] www.strengthandconditioning.org.

14. Venter, R., Potgieter, J. and Barnard, J. (2010). The use of recovery modalities by elite South African team athletes. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 32(1).‌

15. Wiewelhove, T., Döweling, A., Schneider, C., Hottenrott, L., Meyer, T., Kellmann, M., Pfeiffer, M. and Ferrauti, A. (2019). A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Foam Rolling on Performance and Recovery. Frontiers in Physiology, 10.

16. Witts, J. (2016). Science of the tour de france : training secrets of the world’s best cyclists. London: Bloomsbury.

Do compression socks work for cycling?

Knee-High Graduated Compression Socks improve oxygenation, removal of lactic acid & free radicals, which reduces muscle soreness and speeds-up recovery. Compression socks gently squeeze your legs to speed up blood flow back to your heart.

Compression socks have been used in the medical industry for decades, as these socks are known to improve circulation, lymphatic flow, and venous return. Since the late 1980s, graduated compression socks, have been used by cyclists, and other athletes, to improve recovery between rides and training sessions.

The Main Benefits for Cyclists:

• Increased blood flow back to the heart (medically, this is called Venous Return)

• Improved oxygen and nutrition delivery to fatigued leg muscles

• More efficient removal of free radicals and metabolites that have accumulated during the ride

• Compression socks also limit inflammation by creating an external pressure gradient

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“Like many performance interventions that have permeated professional cycling, compression socks started out in the medical sector. Unlike EPO, human growth hormone and testosterone, though, their use in professional cycling is legal - well, in training and recovery anyway.”

— From the book, "Science of the Tour De France: Training Secrets of the World’s Best Cyclists"

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How compression socks work

Compression garments, including compression socks, all function based on the premises of applied pressure and skin coverage. Compression socks improve venous return, which is the blood flow that returns to your heart for re-oxygenation.

How Does a Graduated Compression Sock Function?

• A graduated pressure is applied from your foot up to your calf which gradually decreases continuously from the ankle toward your upper leg 

  • The highest pressure is around your ankle

  • Lowest pressure at the top of the sock or just above your calf muscle 

  • This makes your blood flow faster in your legs

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Your Body’s 2nd “heart”

Bicycle riding will increase the blood flow to your legs. This is accomplished in many ways, but the most significant is from the enhanced action of your Calf Pump, sometimes referred to as your body’s peripheral heart.

Exercising activates the Calf Pump as does external compression…..like from a graduated compression sock.

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Compression socks & intermittent-high-intensity activities

A 2013 meta-analysis, which is a research method that combines the results of many studies into an overall “effect” or outcome, found 423 studies linked to compression clothing, about endurance, power, and/or strength. Of the more than 400 studies, only 31 studies met the criteria to be examined further, with the results being published in the International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance:

• The researchers found that compression clothing, including compression socks, was beneficial for activities that are intermittent-high-intensity. This means that road cyclists and mountain bikers will benefit, as both of these forms of cycling, especially uphill or gradual gradients, require periods of a maximum burst of power to propel the rider to the top

• Endurance based activities, like long-distance jogging, or even leisurely cycling on relatively flat terrain, didn’t receive benefits from compression clothing, as the intensity wasn’t high enough to cause muscle soreness or lactic-acid buildup

• Compression socks helped aid recovery when worn after cycling, as the socks improved lactic acid removal, reductions in muscle swelling, and decreased muscle soreness

Cycling on consecutive days

For bike touring and cycling on consecutive days, wearing compression socks after your ride is one of the best and easiest recovery modalities.

A 2017 meta-analysis from Northumbria University in the UK, concluded that “compression garments would seem to be most effective for recovery from resistance exercise” as well “as for next-day cycling performance.” (emphasis is from this author)

The researchers believe that the compression socks work to aid in muscle recovery mainly through the reduction of inflammation. As you breakdown leg muscles from pedaling uphills, fluid leak into the damaged muscle cells and cause swelling or inflammation. The more fluid that leaks into your muscles, the more muscle damage and soreness you will experience. Compression socks limit the amount of swelling, which reduces soreness, allowing you to tackle multi-day cycle trips.

Free radicals & cycling

During exercise…..like cycling, for example, your body will create free radicals, which is a by-product of the increased breathing rate and caloric burn. A free radical is a molecule or a group of atoms with an odd number of electrons, making them unstable. Since these electrons are missing a “partner,” in search of electron parity, they attack different parts of your body, such as hair, DNA, skin, and muscle tissue.

The muscles of your calf and foot, along with veins and valves, work together to send de-oxygenated (toxic) blood back up to your heart and lungs for cleansing and oxygenation. Wearing compression socks makes this process happen faster and more efficiently.

Stretching vs compression socks

Stretching is the most used recovery strategy, regardless of sport or athletic hobby. Many athletes, including cyclists, stretch before and after their ride as a way to reduce muscle soreness and risk of injury or to improve ride time.

Since stretching is so common, there must be loads of scientific data to support the benefits??? Well, not so much. A 2002 meta-analysis on the “effects of stretching” searched for academic studies related to any form of stretching in relation to injury risk, muscle soreness, or performance changes. The researchers looked through all the relevant studies from 1949 to 2000, combing through 51 years of research and found a whopping 8 studies that met their criteria.

So what did the researchers conclude after reviewing 5 decades of stretching research?

“Stretching before and after exercising does not confer protection from muscle soreness and stretching before exercise does not seem to confer a practically useful reduction in the risk of injury ”

— BMJ (peer-reviewed medical journal)

While scientific evidence doesn’t support stretching, numerous studies have shown the benefits of recovery from wearing compression socks. This doesn’t get much better as all you have to do is wear them after cycling as you enjoy a nice cold beverage.

“we conclude that there are beneficial effects of compression clothing, especially during intermittent high-intensity exercise such as repeated sprinting ”

— International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Final Thought

To actually get the benefits from compression socks, they have to feature graduated pressure, or they will not work, and be nothing more than a typical knee-high sock.

“Findings from the current study suggest that athletes should employ the use of compression garments between exercise bouts to improve recovery and enhance subsequent performance”

— International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Compression is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg), which is the same pressure system that is used to measure your blood pressure. A compression sock that is around 22mmHg at the ankle is the right amount of pressure for most cyclists.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction, researcher, taster of yummy craft beers, and wearer of graduated compression socks.

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MORE ARTICLES from PEDAL CHILE

Sources for this article

“Compared with the placebo group the compression group had a 5.9% improvement in their run time to exhaustion”

— Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

1. Armstrong, S.A., Till, E.S., Maloney, S.R. and Harris, G.A. (2015). Compression Socks and Functional Recovery Following Marathon Running. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29(2), pp.528–533. (fig2)

2. Born, D.-P., Sperlich, B. and Holmberg, H.-C. (2013). Bringing Light into the Dark: Effects of Compression Clothing on Performance and Recovery. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 8(1), pp.4–18.

3. Brophy-Williams, N., Driller, M.W., Kitic, C.M., Fell, J.W. and Halson, S.L. (2017). Effect of Compression Socks Worn Between Repeated Maximal Running Bouts. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 12(5), pp.621–627.

4. Brown, F., Gissane, C., Howatson, G., van Someren, K., Pedlar, C. and Hill, J. (2017). Compression Garments and Recovery from Exercise: A Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine, 47(11), pp.2245–2267.

5. Charles, T., Mackintosh, D., Healy, B., Perrin, K., Weatherall, M. and Beasley, R. (2011). Merino wool graduated compression stocking increases lower limb venous blood flow: A randomized controlled trial. Advances in Therapy, 28(3), pp.227–237.

6. Heiss, R., Hotfiel, T., Kellermann, M., May, M. S., Wuest, W., Janka, R., Nagel, A. M., Uder, M., & Hammon, M. (2018). Effect of Compression Garments on the Development of Edema and Soreness in Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS). Journal of sports science & medicine, 17(3), 392–401. (fig1)

7. Herbert, R.D. and Gabriel, M. (2002). Effects of stretching before and after exercising on muscle soreness and risk of injury: systematic review. BMJ, 325(7362), pp.468–468.

8. medlineplus.gov. (2018). Compression stockings: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. [online]

9. Simon, H.B. (2007). On call: Exercise and free radicals. [online] Harvard Health.

10. Witts, J. (2016). Science of the tour de france : training secrets of the world’s best cyclists. London: Bloomsbury.

Are Merino Wool Socks Itchy?

Merino Sheep

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Are Merino socks itchy?

Mid to high-quality Merino wool socks will not cause itching, as these socks use a fine fiber, which is soft and pliable. However, low-quality Merino Wool or socks blended with inferior textiles can still be itchy, even if predominantly Merino.

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The amazing qualities of MERINO WOOL is well known, such as:

“Wool has the unique ability that it virtually is self-cleaning”

— (Klepp et al., 2010)

• Merino keeps you warm when it's cold and cool when it is hot

• Don’t get creases due to its natural “memory” 

• Absorbs over 30% of its weight in water or perspiration without feeling wet, which makes them perfect for outdoor activities 

• Odor-resistant due to their natural anti-bacterial properties, which means you can wear them multiple times before washing

• MERINO SOCKS DON'T ITCH…..so why doesn’t it itch and are all Merino socks itchiness free? 

Why isn’t Merino Wool itchy?

Traditional wool fibers are large in diameter, making them stiff. It’s this stiffness that rubs against your skin and prickles it, causing you to feel itchy. Merino Wool, by contrast, has very fine threads, which allows the fibers to bend and flex, making them feel soft on your skin.

The tactile discomfort or itchiness that people experience with wool is because traditional wool has thick fibers that poke your skin as opposed to flex around it as do the finer fibers of Merino.

“The threshold force for buckling is highly dependent on fibre diameter.”

Image Source and Text: Dr. Geoff Naylor

Microns, merino measurements & the “itch factor”



What is a micron and how does it relate to wool itchiness? 

A micron or micrometer (μm), is a unit of measure of length and equates to one-thousandth of a millimeter (.000039 inch). The micron is used to measure the thickness or diameter of microscopic objects or microorganisms, including the fiber thickness of wool and other clothing materials.

Any clothing that touches your skin will feel itchy if it has a fiber diameter above 28 microns, such as traditional wool. This is known as the "comfort factor" or "itch factor."

The “Itch Factor” and Merino Wool thickness

• Itch factor = Anything above 28 microns (some experts say 23 microns)

• “Regular” Merino Wool (Super-fine) - 17 to 18.5 microns

• Extra Fine = 15 to 16.5 microns

• Ultra-Fine = Below ~14.9 microns

• Cashmere (for comparison) less than 19 microns

• Traditional Wool = Around 30 microns at a minimum

• Human Hair - about 75 microns

“The Merino wool fiber used in the clothing for this study was all of fine diameter, which has been demonstrated to be comfortable to wear”

— Journal of Dermatitis

A 2019 study published in Dermatitis, evaluated the effects of wearing Merino wool (≤ 17.5 μm) vs standard clothing with kids and adults suffering from eczema (atopic dermatitis). 

The researchers concluded, that “wearing fine-diameter Merino wool garments may actually improve signs and symptoms in patients with mild to moderate atopic dermatitis.” 

If children and adults with eczema can alleviate symptoms by wearing Merino wool and improve their quality of life (according to the researchers), then it’s clear why Merino is synonymous with “soft wool.”

Low-quality merino wool can still be itchy

“Prickle is solely fibre diameter dependent, and amount of prickle increases drastically with small increase in the fibre diameter”

— (Udakhe et al., 2012)

Fiber diameter is the most important measure for Merino Wool comfort. However, low-quality Merino wool clothing can still be itchy as it only takes 2 to 3% of the total fibers to be ‘thick’ to feel prickly. A piece of clothing averaging 16 microns will still feel itchy if 2 to 3% of those fibers are above 28 microns. Also, fiber length can affect the “itch” feel, but to a much lesser extent. Shorter fibers cause more ‘prick’ as more fiber ends make contact with your skin, making shorter fibers feel coarser.

3 things that make you itchier

“superfine and ultra fine Merino wool garments with finer fibre diameters do not activate sufficient c-fibres responsible for itch transmission”

— Acta Dermato Venereologica

• Body part - Hairy body parts are more sensitive to textiles

• Age: As you age, your skin becomes less sensitive, so younger people are more likely to experience itch from clothing……one reason why Grandma makes those super itchy sweaters…it doesn’t bother her.

• High humidity or hot temperatures will soften your skin, which increases sensitivity to discomfort

These three variables can make you more susceptible to itch. However, if you wear extra-fine or ultra-fine Merino wool, you will avoid the itch and enjoy all the wonderful benefits of the greatest natural textile.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction, a taster of craft beers, and lover of Merino wool.

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More Articles from PEDAL CHILE

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Sources

1. Fowler, J.F., Fowler, L.M. and Lorenz, D. (2019). Effects of Merino Wool on Atopic Dermatitis Using Clinical, Quality of Life, and Physiological Outcome Measures. Dermatitis, 30(3), pp.198–206.‌

2. Holman, BWB and Malau-Aduli, AEO 2012, 'A Review of Sheep Wool Quality Traits', Annual Review & Research in Biology, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-14.

3. Klepp, Ingun & Tobiasson, Tone & Bandlien, Charlotte. (2010). A Fresh Look at Wool.

4. Naylor, G. Innovations in wool textile technology Comfortable next-to-the-skin wool.

5. Udakhe, Jayant & Tyagi, Shishir & Shrivastava, Neeraj & Bait, Smita & Bhute, Aniket. (2012). Effect of yarn hairiness, DBD plasma and enzyme treatment on itching propensity of woollen knitwear. Colourage. LXI. 46-51.

6. Zallmann, M., Smith, P., Tang, M., Spelman, L., Cahill, J., Wortmann, G., Katelaris, C., Allen, K. and Su, J. (2017). Debunking the Myth of Wool Allergy: Reviewing the Evidence for Immune and Non-immune Cutaneous Reactions. Acta Dermato Venereologica, 97(8), pp.906–915.

How to Improve Climbing MTB (6 ways to make you faster today)

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Here are some tips to improve your climbing, without the cliche/typical advice of “ride more,” “inflate tires,” “stay hydrated” or “stiffen the shocks.”

1) Increase your power-to-weight ratio (PWR)

Nothing will improve your climbing ability as much, or quickly, as improving your Power to Weight Ratio (PWR). In road cycling and mountain biking, the riders with the greatest PWR can pedal up hills the fastest.

There are 4 primary ways you can increase your PWR:

1. Lose weight (fat)

2. Gain strength (without gaining much weight)

3. Get a lighter bike/components (least improvement of the 4)

4. Lighten the load in your pack

For every half-mile (.8 km) slope at a ~15% gradient, each extra kilogram (2.2 lbs) of weight adds 6 seconds to the climb.

This means that for a cyclist who is 10 pounds overweight, while wearing a backpack weighing an additional 10 pounds, this will slow down the rider by nearly one-minute for every 1/2 mile or 880 yards. 

Now, these figures are calculated based upon road cyclists, which means that they will be magnified while climbing single-track, as the variable terrain and obstacles make climbing, even slower.  

Here a few examples of items that weigh about a kilogram (2.2 lbs):

• Each liter (33.8 oz) of water weighs almost exactly one-kilo 

• A 15L day-pack, with 2 cliff bars, your keys, a spare inner tube, and cell phone 

• 2 cans of 16-oz craft beer 

• 6 to 7 apples

Losing weight is the easiest and fastest way to increase PWR for most recreational mountain bikers. However, gaining strength while keeping your weight the same (or less) is also an effective way to get stronger on the bike and power up those hills easier. 

So what are some ways to get stronger?

• Weight-train: Squats, deadlifts, lunges, pushups, pull-ups, jumps

• High-Intensity-Interval-Training (HIIT): Mountain biking is HIIT. However, if the only time you’re actually performing a HIIT style “workout” is while riding, then it’s time to incorporate a training regime into your routine. Think CrossFit, Cardio Kickboxing, or any training where you go all-out followed by short active recovery periods….and repeat.

2) Get bigger tires

“29er “rolls over” obstacles more easily requiring
less energy to ride”

—  International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences

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There is a reason that 26 inch tires have fallen out of style…..27.5 and 29ers a just better.

“29-inch wheels showed a clear performance advantage during hill climbs”

— International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences

A 2017 study, from Southern Utah University, examined energy expenditure during singletrack riding between 26ers and 29ers. The results:

1. During uphill riding, 29ers had ~7% faster times and speeds with over 10% lower caloric expenditure

2. 29-inch wheels (29ers) hold their momentum over a combination of terrain, which means those bigger tires make it easier to maintain speed over obstacles

A 2016 study titled, The Effect of Mountain Bike Wheel Size on Cross­ Country Performance, studied the performance differences between 26ers, 27.5, and 29ers on a singletrack course.

The researchers’ conclusion:

“The findings indicate that wheel size does not significantly influence performance during cross-country when ridden by trained mountain bikers, and that wheel choice is likely due to personal choice or sponsorship commitments”

-Journal of Sports Sciences

It should be noted that although the researchers didn’t “find” any “significant” differences between the three types of MTBs, there was a clear cut winner.

“Athletes rated the 29“ bike significantly better than the 26“ bike for rolling over obstacles such as roots, for having better traction and for performance in general”

— Journal of Sports Sciences (Hurst et al., 2016)



The study course was only 2 miles long (3.5km), yet the 29ers averaged 12 seconds faster than the 26ers and 21 seconds faster than the 27.5 MTBs. 

The researchers also stated in this same study, “over a full race distance with multiple laps, indicate “29” wheels may potentially offer a greater advantage over smaller wheel sizes.”  

I’m often curious when I read the conclusion section of academic studies, and how the researchers come to their conclusions. Understanding the difference between “significant” in laboratory settings and “significant” in the real-world is not the same. For ANY mountain bicyclist, expending 9.2% less energy while riding a 29er uphill is SIGNIFICANT.

• Actual results from this same study

  • The 29er requires 9.2% less energy to climb a hill compared to 27.5

  • 29ers used 6.7% less effort than the 26ers

What about TIRE WIDTH?

Few studies have researched the width of MTB tires. However, the few studies that have been conducted, under real single-track conditions, find that wider tires equal better.

• Wider tires = increased efficiency (holds momentum better) 

• Rolling Resistance between narrow & wide tires is nearly identical (assuming both are rolling at a normal PSI)  

• Fewer Vibrations: Wider tires dampen obstacles & uneven ground. While this isn’t a direct advantage of uphill climbing, it does make mountain biking more fun and less fatiguing overall

Wider tires are heavier, and if running at low-PSI are harder to propel forward. As with most things, bigger is better……up to a point. Finding the“sweet spot” is dependent on your height & weight, riding style, and what type of terrain you bike.

3) Clean bike & drivetrain

The bicycle drivetrain at a maximum is 98.6% efficient. However, that’s under perfect laboratory conditions, which don’t exist outside. Once your drivetrain has been beaten down by the elements, dirt, grime, or worn teeth, you’re transmission isn’t even performing at 75% efficiency.

Cleaning & lubing chain after a ride

Hitting the trails with a clean and properly lubed chain will make climbing easier, as your not wasting energy with each pedal stroke.

Also, having a clean bike rides faster. Switching gears is easier and more efficient, and for all the upgrades that cost hundreds of dollars to save a few ounces, a half-gallon of caked-on, dried up mud weighs in at about 3 pounds (fresh mud is much heavier), which will add minutes to a short, multi-loop ride.

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Scientifically formulated to go super fast - learn more

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4) Get a shorter crank arm

When you are climbing uphill, trail obstacles such as rocks, roots, and logs will slow you down and cause you to lose momentum. A shorter crank arm allows you to reach peak power significantly faster. In addition to shorter crank arms producing power faster, they also produce more peak power, and have a higher ground clearance, which will help you clear trail obstacles.

So what size crank arm is best?

• No bigger than 170 mm

• 170 mm crank arm is ~22% faster in reaching maximum power output compared to 175 mm and 8% faster than 172.5 mm

“The decreased time to peak power with the greater rate of power development in the 170 mm condition suggests a race advantage may be achieved using a shorter crank length than commonly observed”

— European Journal of Applied Physiology

5) Ride with a dropper post & maximize STA

While most people associate the benefits of a dropper post while descending, there are benefits to having a dropper post while climbing.

“The angle between the seat tube and ground is the most important angle on the bicycle frame ”

— Edmund Burke - PhD

Most cyclists keep their MTB seat lower than their road bike saddle. Riding with your saddle just 1-inch (25 mm) below optimal height reduces your maximum power by ~4 to 8%, with further reductions as you lower your saddle.

Also, keep in mind that as you lower and raise your seat, you’re effectively altering your Seat Tube Angle (STA). You can also change your STA by sliding the seat forward or back.

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Seat Tube Angle (STA) of 72°, this STA mimics “shallow” frame geometry and STA of 82°, which mimics “steep” frame geometry.

Image & Caption Source: (Ricard et al., 2006)

• A more forward sitting saddle is good for climbing

• A “steeper” STA is more mechanically efficient. Generally, studies don’t show an increase in power output with a steeper angle but show a reduction of energy expended while generating the same power

  • A forward sitting saddle is known as “steep,” since the angle increases or “steepens”

The ability to adjust your seat on the go during the entire duration of your ride will do wonders for both your climbing and flying.

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For more info about Seat Tube Angle (STA) and how the optimal STA can enhance your ride, read my article, "What is STA?"

“What is Seat Tube Angle?”

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6) Don’t get intimated by “the hill”

20º hill (Image Source: Stefanucci et al., 2005)

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“As has been shown in previous studies, participants grossly overestimated the slant of the hill ”

— Perception & Psychophysics

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Bicyclists hugely overestimate the steepness of hills, especially when tired. 

The hill in the above picture has a 20º slope. The average cyclist would estimate this slope to be 40º when fresh, and over 60º when tired.

Illustration of an alternative account of bicyclist hill misperception based on postural adaptation after extended riding: If one adapts to a lowered head or gaze posture while biking (or hiking), one may misperceive slightly downward gaze as being forward gaze. The image in the bubble represents the perceptual error in geographical slant (increased overestimation) predicted based on a misperception of gaze direction (dashed line) relative to the true straight ahead. Image & Caption Source: (Durgin et al., 2012)

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“Hills do, in-deed, look steeper when we are tired than when we are not”

— (Proffitt et al., 1995)

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Studies also show that hills appear steeper to tired and fatigued bikers. Not because of low blood sugar or dehydration, but because of perception. As you become fatigued, your posture changes, thus altering your line of sight. As your tired eyes focus more on the ground, when you do look ahead, the hills appear much steeper. 

When you attack hills, look ahead and not down. Also, most hills on singletrack trails are not above a 15% gradient. Don’t let your mind trick you into thinking it’s a 30% slope because it’s not, and thoughts like that will only slow you down.

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Is your bike adjusted properly?? If not, we will show you how

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and is an avid MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction, taster of craft beers, and goat-like climber on a bike or hike.

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More Articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources

1. Durgin, F.H., Klein, B., Spiegel, A., Strawser, C.J. and Williams, M. (2012). The social psychology of perception experiments: Hills, backpacks, glucose, and the problem of generalizability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38(6), pp.1582–1595.

2. Hurst, H.T., Sinclair, J., Atkins, S., Rylands, L. and Metcalfe, J. (2016). The effect of mountain bike wheel size on cross-country performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(14), pp.1349–1354.

3. Macdermid, P.W. and Edwards, A.M. (2009). Influence of crank length on cycle ergometry performance of well-trained female cross-country mountain bike athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 108(1), pp.177–182.

4. Proffitt, D.R., Bhalla, M., Gossweiler, R. and Midgett, J. (1995). Perceiving geographical slant. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2(4), pp.409–428.

5. Ricard, M. D., Hills-Meyer, P., Miller, M. G., & Michael, T. J. (2006). The effects of bicycle frame geometry on muscle activation and power during a wingate anaerobic test. Journal of sports science & medicine, 5(1), 25–32.

6. ‌Stefanucci, J.K., Proffitt, D.R., Banton, T. and Epstein, W. (2005). Distances appear different on hills. Perception & Psychophysics, 67(6), pp.1052–1060.

7. Steiner, T., Müller, B., Maier, T. and Wehrlin, J.P. (2015). Performance differences when using 26- and 29-inch-wheel bikes in Swiss National Team cross-country mountain bikers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(15), pp.1438–1444.

8. Taylor, J., Thomas, C. and W. Manning, J. (2017). Impact of Wheel Size on Energy Expenditure during Mountain Bike Trail Riding. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, [online] 5(4), pp.77–84.

9. Wood, B.M. and Albrechtsen, S.J. (2008). Power Development in Hill Climbing as a Function of Bicycle Weight. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(Supplement), p.S42.

Walking Vs Biking Uphill

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When does walking become more efficient than cycling uphill? 

• Road cycling: The "critical slope" or the incline where walking (or running) becomes more efficient than cycling is 13–15% (recreational cyclists) 

• Mountain Biking: The “critical slope” is 8 - 11% before it becomes more efficient to walk then to continue pedaling. 

Walking uphill is approximately 35% more energy efficient compared to cycling up the same hill. 

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20º/36% Hill (Image Source: Stefanucci et al., 2005). It’s significantly easier to walk up this hill

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Cycling on flat ground with no wind is about 4 times more efficient than walking. The keyword in the previous sentence is “flat.” Once you start pedaling up a hill, even a small one, you might find yourself being passed by a walker.

A hill with only a 4% gradient will slow a cyclist down by 75%, while the same hill will slow a walker down by 38% at the same power output.

Why is cycling uphill harder than walking uphill?

Even a small hill can feel like a mountain. (Riding with my friend Josh in DuPont…or in this situation….walking)

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“Cycling uphill is merciless, and it immediately has an enormous impact on your body. Your breathing and heart rhythm react to the smallest slope percentage.”

— Paul Van Den Bosch in "Cycling for Triathletes"

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When cycling on flat terrain the two main opposing forces are rolling resistance (energy loss between wheels and surface) and air resistance. Once you are pedaling uphill, gravity becomes the main resistance.

Why cycling uphill is harder than walking:

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Image Source: (Fonda and Sarabon, 2012)

• Holding torque on the pedals - Especially during the cranks dead center, cycling required constant torque on the pedals. Walking, by contrast, there is a pause between each step. 

• Weight of the bicycle - You need to overcome gravity with the additional weight of the bike. 

• Gearing - Most bikes, even in the lowest gear, are still too challenging. This equates to a sub-optimal cadence rate, resulting in a ~25% loss of pedal efficiency.

• Altered walking/running mechanics during uphill climbing - As flat ground turns into hilly terrain, you will automatically take faster steps. Also, you change which part of your foot makes contact with the ground. Both of these changes result in increased activation of your calf, butt, hamstrings, and hip muscles.

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“walking uphill is slightly more efficient (in terms of energy consumption) than level walking ”

— David Gordon Wilson in the book "Bicycling Science"

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• Cycling uphill also changes biomechanics. However, the changes in posture generally make cycling less efficient. Cyclists have to adjust weight forward to keep the front wheel on the ground while stabilizing the body from sliding around in the saddle.

uphill climbing & mountain biking

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“This is more pronounced in MTB where larger tires, unpredictable terrain and repeated climbs due to the circuit nature of MTB requires MTB cyclists to exert significant effort against gravity ”

— (Impellizzeri et al., 2007)

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Taking the gondola up in Telluride…..”slightly” easier than MTBing uphill



Mountain biking uphill is harder compared to road cycling. 

While cycling uphill on the road, the primary resistance is gravity. 

Mountain biking uphill, you have to battle gravity…..and more of it, plus rolling resistance, tire deflection, and loss of momentum from hitting trail obstacles, such as rocks, logs, stones, and roots. 

Mountain bikes also have larger tires that are rolling at a lower PSI, with variable terrains, such as gravel, sand, mud, clay, and dirt, all conditions that make wheels turn slowly.

The dual suspension, dropper post, thru-axles, disc brakes, and larger tires, all add weight to MTBs, making them even more inefficient uphill.

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“Apart from the tyre, the current 29-in. wheels seem to offer lower rolling resistance (by up to 23%) than the previous 26-in. wheels, resulting in a speed increase of 2–3%”

— Journal of Sports Sciences

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How much harder is it to pedal a bike with “fat tires” compared to a road bike?

• Most things being equal (speed, gradient, tire pressure, etc.) it takes nearly 19% more energy to ride a fat tire bike compared to a road bike.

METS & uphill Cycling vs walking

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Continuum of physical activity - (Image Source: Thosar, Saurabh S et al.)

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METS or Metabolic Equivalent of Task is the measure of the ratio of the rate at which a person expends energy of a specific task relative to what you would expend while sitting quietly. Walking uphill at 3.5 mph equates to 6 METS. Which means this activity requires 6 times more oxygen compared to just sitting down chilling in a chair.

• Brisk walking at 3.5 mph on a level ground = 3.8 METS

• Walking uphill at 3.5 mph = 6 METS

• Climbing (walking) uphill with 40-pound backback = 9METS

• Cycling uphill = 10 to 16 METS

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Yes. Show me how!

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Jesse (Director of Pedal Chile) lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, sampling craft beer, and mountain biking uphill.

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Sources

1. Ardig, L.P., Saibene, F. and Minetti, A.E. (2003). The optimal locomotion on gradients: walking, running or cycling? European Journal of Applied Physiology, 90(3–4), pp.365–371.

2. The Compendium of Physical Activities Tracking Guide. (n.d.). [online]

3. ‌Fonda, Borut & Sarabon, Nejc. (2012). Biomechanics and Energetics of Uphill Cycling: A review. Kinesiology. 44. 5-17.

4. Fonda, B., Panjan, A., Markovic, G. and Sarabon, N. (2011). Adjusted saddle position counteracts the modified muscle activation patterns during uphill cycling. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 21(5), pp.854–860.

5. ‌Impellizzeri, F.M., Ebert, T., Sassi, A., Menaspà, P., Rampinini, E. and Martin, D.T. (2007). Level ground and uphill cycling ability in elite female mountain bikers and road cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 102(3), pp.335–341.

6. Maier, T., Müller, B., Allemann, R., Steiner, T. and Wehrlin, J.P. (2018). Influence of wheel rim width on rolling resistance and off-road speed in cross-country mountain biking. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37(7), pp.833–838.

7. ‌Stefanucci, J.K., Proffitt, D.R., Banton, T. and Epstein, W. (2005). Distances appear different on hills. Perception & Psychophysics, 67(6), pp.1052–1060.

8. Thosar, S. S., Johnson, B. D., Johnston, J. D., & Wallace, J. P. (2012). Sitting and endothelial dysfunction: the role of shear stress. Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research, 18(12), RA173–RA180. https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.883589

9. Van Den Bosch, P. (2006). Cycling for triathletes endurance. Oxford Meyer & Meyer Sport.

10. Vernillo, G., Giandolini, M., Edwards, W.B., Morin, J.-B., Samozino, P., Horvais, N. and Millet, G.Y. (2016). Biomechanics and Physiology of Uphill and Downhill Running. Sports Medicine, 47(4), pp.615–629.

11. Wilson, David (2004). Bicycling science. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Mit Press.

12. Wilson, David (2020). Bicycling Science. S.L.: Mit Press.

How often should I service my mountain bike?

“Many variables, from your riding style to geographic location will determine your maintenance requirements. The longer you neglect maintenance, the more it becomes critical. ”

— From the Trek Bicycle Owner's Manual

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Service schedules and checklists provide only general guidelines. Specific mountain bike maintenance requirements are particular to each rider. However, keeping your bike clean and properly lubricated with a few periodic checks go a long way in extending the life and performance of your MTB.

Below, is the maintenance schedule from the Santa Cruz User Manual and Yeti Cycles Owner’s Manual. Both of these manuals provide standard industry recommendations.

For a more in-depth schedule, keep reading.

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Source: Santa Cruz Bicycles User Manual

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Source: Yeti Cycles Owner’s Manual (Yeti SB115, Full suspension carbon frame MTB)

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How often to service mtb suspension

“When you inspect a fork, remove the front wheel, clean the mud off”

—  Zinn & the Art of Mountain Bike Maintenance

If you are a regular mountain biker and ride steep, technical terrain, having your suspension serviced every 20 - 40 rides is recommended.

For more recreational styles of mountain biking, once per year during an annual overhaul/tune-up is suggested.

Service recommendations from RockShox Owner’s Manual (front Fork):

• Every Ride: Clean dirt from upper tubes and wiper seals

• Every 50 Hour: Perform lower leg service

• Every 200 Hours or Yearly: Perform damper and spring service

Maintenance intervals from RockShox Owner’s Manual (rear shock):

• Every Ride: Clean dirt from shock damper body

• Every 50 Hours: Perform air can service

• Every 200 Hours: Perform damper and spring service

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every ride

“MOUNTAIN BIKES NEED FREQUENT CLEANING, MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION. Clean your bike after every ride and conduct a pre-ride inspection before every ride. ”

— Cannondale Mountain Bike Owner's Manual

1. Check Tire Pressure

   • Use gauge, if not, squeeze sidewall at minimum

2. Wipe Down, Bike Chain & Re-lube

   • Make sure all excess lubricant is wiped off

   • If your bike is gritty or dirty or if you rode through mud/rain, then a more in-depth washing/cleaning will be necessary

3. Bounce Bike

   • Listen for any odd noises, rubbing sounds, creaks, or rattles, such as a loose headset

4. Check Suspension System Settings

   • Make sure the suspension system is set-up for your weight and the day’s riding conditions

   • Air shocks gradually lose pressure….just like tires

5. Inspect Frame & Components

   • Look for signs of stress, such as scratches, dents, cracks, or color deformation and make sure all components are securely attached

   • Examine tires for thread cuts

6. Check for Smooth Shifting

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Every 5 - 10 rides

“ANY PART OF A POORLY MAINTAINED BIKE CAN BREAK OR MALFUNCTION LEADING TO AN ACCIDENT”

— Cannondale Mountain Bike Owner's Manual

1. Bolt Check to Torque Spec

   • Check all bolts, pedals, and accessories to make sure that all fasteners are tightened to manufacturer torque specifications

     • Do you need a torque wrench? The answer is yes…for more info check out my article on torque wrenches for mountain bikes

2. Wash/Clean Bike & Lube Chain

   • Keep your bike clean. Dirt CAUSES wear faster than anything else

   • Perform an in-depth cleaning with emphasis on the drivetrain

   • Make sure to wipe off excess lube after application

   • For more info, read my article about “Cleaning Mountain Bikes”

3. Check for Chain Stretch

   • You can use a chain checker tool or a ruler

   • A worn chain will damage the cog teeth

   • For a more in-depth review, read my article, “How Often Should I replace my MTB Chain?”

4. Inspect Brake Pads

   • Check for wear & alignment

5. Check Suspension for Wear

6. Lubricate Suspension Pivots

7. Lube Pedal Bindings

   • If riding clipless pedal system

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Yes! I need more info

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Every 20 - 40 Rides

“Every 25 (hard off-road) to 50 (on-road) hours of riding: Take your bike to your dealer for a complete checkup.”

— Specialized Bicycles Owner's Manual

1. Check Tire Tread & Sidewall Integrity

   • Nothing derails a ride as quickly as a flat tire

   • Low tread or cracked sideways both indicate it’s time for new tires

2. Check the Conditions of Spare Inner Tube

   • Also, a good time to make sure your emergency tools/gear are still in your pack

3. Check Wheels for Trueness & Condition

   • Correct as needed (or bring to a professional as a mistake here will make the tire highly susceptible to catastrophic failure)

4. Service Front & Rear Shock

   • Perform air sleeve service (or have serviced at shop)

   • Drain & replace fork fluid and replace seals

5. Remove & Re-Grease Seatpost

6. Overhaul Pedal Bearings

7. Overhaul Derailleur Jockey Wheel Bushings & Seals

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every 80 - 150 rides

“MOUNTAIN BIKE RIDING IS VERY DIFFERENT FROM RIDING A BIKE ON THE ROAD.”

— Cannondale Mountain Bike Owner's Manual

1. Fork & Rear Shock Need Damper Servicing

   • Take to shop or send to rebuild facility

2. Check Tire Sealant Level (if you have tubeless tires)

   • Add more sealant if low

3. Overhaul Bearings

   • Hubs, Bottom Bracket, Pedals,

4. Bleed Hydraulic Brakes

   • If brake performance has dwindled even though rotors and pads are good it’s time for a brake bleed

5. Replace All Cable Housing

   • Brake, shifter, and dropper post cables

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Annually

1. Yearly Complete Overhaul

   • Disassembly of the complete bike. Clean and re-grease all threaded components upon reassembly

   • Inspection of your entire bike. This means inspecting the frame, suspension, all components, and repair/replace parts as needed

   • Degrease drivetrain & replace chain

   • New handlebar grips

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Every 3+ years

1. Replace

   • Handlebars

   • Fork & rear shock

   • Saddle

   • Seatpost

   • Stem

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Final Thought

Calvin Jones, from ParkTool, says in the Big Blue Book of Bicycle Repair (BBB3):

“The idea of a schedule of maintenance is that it will encourage you to check certain items on a regular basis. No two bikes are used in identical conditions, and your bike may benefit from more checking than a list suggests”

— C. Calvin Jones in the book "Big Blue Book of Bicycle Repair "

The previous quote was from the 2013 edition of the BBB. The 2019 edition, the BBB-4, has eliminated the maintenance schedule. However, as Calvin Jones noted, checking components regularly, is a good idea, since there are no “one size fits all” rules to MTB maintenance intervals.

While many of the servicing recommendations require special tools and knowledge, the 3 most important routine maintenance tasks are simple and easy enough that almost anyone can do them:

1. Regular washing/cleaning of your bike

2. Keeping the chain clean and properly lubricated

3. Keeping all bolts/fasteners torqued to spec (loose parts will lead to all sorts of problems…..and fast)

If you can do these 3 simple maintenance steps, you will significantly prolong the lifespan and performance of your mountain bike.

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Learn how to tune your bike from a pro bicycle mechanic…..for FREE

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, weight-lifting, craft beer, and making hot sauces.

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More Articles from Pedal Chile

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Sources for: “how often to service mountain bike”

1. Cannondale Bikes (n.d.). Bicycle Owner’s Manual. [online]

2. C  Calvin Jones (2013). Big blue book of bicycle repair : a do-it-yourself bicycle repair guide from Park Tool. Saint Paul, Mn: Park Tool Co.

3. C  Calvin Jones (2019). Big blue book of bicycle repair : a do-it-yourself bicycle repair guide from Park Tool. Saint Paul, Mn: Park Tool Co.

4. RockShox Inc. (n.d.). Service Manuals. [online] www.sram.com. ‌

5. Santa Cruz Bicycles (2017). SANTA CRUZ BICYCLES 2017 User Manual. [online]

6. Specialized Bicycle Components (2007). OWNER’S MANUAL SPECIALIZED BICYCLE. [online]

7. Wiggins, C. (2014). Bike repair & maintenance. New York, New York, Usa: Alpha, A Member Of The Penguin Group (Usa) Inc.

8. Yeti Cycles (n.d.). OWNER’S MANUAL YETI SB115. [online]

9. Zinn, L. and Telander, T. (2018). Zinn & the art of mountain bike maintenance : the world’s best-selling guide to mountain bike repair. Boulder, Colorado: Velopress.

Bicycle Saddle vs Seat |Part 2|

By: David V. Herlihy (for Pedal Chile)

I recently received an email from Jesse Wright of Pedal Chile asking me about the historical distinction between a bicycle “saddle” versus a bicycle “seat.” As he has pointed out, both terms are now used interchangeably.

I had to admit that I hadn’t given this interesting question much thought. But his query has prodded me to look deeper into this “pressing” matter.

Here are my tentative conclusions.

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In case you missed it

Part 1, “Why is a Bicycle Seat Called a Saddle”

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definitions: seat vs saddle

First, let’s dispense with basic definitions of the key terms. A “seat” is essentially a generic term for any place where one can park one’s derriere. A “saddle,” in contrast, is a particular kind of seat, namely, one specifically constructed (generally of leather) to rest on the back of an animal.

And so it is a given that a bicycle must have a seat for its driver. But since when was that seat commonly described as a saddle, and why was that concept introduced in the first place?

velocipede

Jesse is undoubtedly correct that the notion of a two-wheeler having a “saddle” dates back to its original configuration: i.e., the kick-propelled “running machine” introduced by the German baron Karl von Drais in 1817.

(Fig. 1) The “running machine” or “hobby horse”

Within two years, variations of this invention, also known as a “velocipede” (from the Latin for “fast feet”) were introduced in Great Britain and United States, where their seats were commonly  called “saddles.”

Here, for example, is an excerpt from a London paper published in March, 1819:

Velocipede. —The pedestrian carriage, invented by Baron Drais, is now getting into celebrity, and is known by the above appellation. It consists of two wheels, one behind the other, connected by perch, on which a saddle is placed

Now why did the press refer to this particular kind of seat as a saddle? As Jesse explains in his article, the answer is quite straightforward. The original velocipede was in essence a mechanical horse—indeed, it was commonly referred to in English as a “hobby horse.” And given that one straddled a two wheeler as one would a horse, it is hardly surprising that its leather seat would be equated to its equestrian counterpart.

hobby horse craze fades away

As I note in my first book Bicycle: the History, the hobby horse craze soon faded, but the elusive quest for a practical human-powered vehicle would continue to unfold for decades. The focus of the experimentation, however, shifted from two-wheelers to vehicles having three or four wheels, designed for one or more drivers or passengers, and powered by various combinations of hand-levers and treadles. The term “velocipede” thus evolved into a generic expression for any such “locomotive” vehicle.

(Fig. 2) Tricycle. Year unknown but thought to be around 1875

In the 1840s and 1850s, Great Britain was the principal “hotbed” of velocipede experimentation. A few artisans, notably Willard Sawyer of Dover, even managed to run a regular business making and selling treadle-driven “quadricycles.” But while these vehicles were also called “velocipedes,” they were apparently no longer said to have “saddles,” but rather “seats.”

Checking the digital British Newspaper Archives 1820-1867, I came across no reference to a “velocipede saddle.” I did, however, find a few mentions of “velocipedes seated for two.”

The reason for the disappearance of the term “velocipede saddle” is self evident: the multi-wheeled “velocipedes” characteristic of this period were essentially mechanical carriages, not horses. They were generally not “straddled” like a horse, nor were their seats fixed to a perch, as they had been on the original velocipede. Rather, the driver or drivers (and any passengers) were seated in a sort of chair or bench supported by the vehicle’s floorboards.

Image Source: (Spencer, 1877)

The notion of a “velocipede saddle,” would, however, make a comeback in the late 1860s after France introduced a new kind of two-wheeler with pedals attached to the front hub. As its popularity grew and spread around the world, the term “velocipede” would once again refer primarily to a two-wheeler. And so, once again, it made sense to designate the seats of these two-wheelers as “saddles.” In fact, one of the first articles published in a U.S. newspaper describing the novelty already invoked the notion of a saddle. The New York Sun declared in October 1868 that “a skillful practitioner starts his velocipede with a push, then springs into his saddle…”

The simpler term “bicycle” is now coined

Around this time, the simpler term “bicycle” was coined to designate the new style of two-wheeler, supplanting the term “velocipede” within a few years. Still, the notion of a “saddle” obviously continued to apply in connection with two-wheelers, however they were called.

Of course, bicycle “saddles” were still essentially “seats”, and so one also finds ample examples of that term in use during the “boneshaker” era (the unflattering term for the first generation bicycle, introduced retrospectively).

(Fig. 4). “Boneshaker” - circa 1869

A quick search of the Library of Congress’s digital newspaper archive (known as “Chronicling America”) suggests that the terms “saddle” and “seat” were virtually interchangeable between 1868 and 1869. In that period, I found 23 articles in which “saddle” and “velocipede” (or “bicycle”) appeared within ten words of each other. A similar search, substituting “seat” for “saddle,” yielded 39 hits.

“high wheeler” era: 1870s & 1890s

High Wheeler

Using the same resource to check the use of these terms during the era of the second generation bicycle, the “high wheeler” of the 1870s and 1880s, I find even greater parity. Between 1870-1890, I got 300 hits for bicycle (or velocipede) “seats,” versus 321 instances of bicycle (or velocipede) “saddles.”

Clearly, the notion of a bicycle having a “saddle” as opposed to a “seat” remained strong from 1868 through at least 1890. Again, though, this finding is not terribly surprising if we consider that throughout this period bicycles typically had their seats affixed to the vehicle’s perch (or its “backbone,” as it was commonly called during the high wheel era).

But why would the notion of a “saddle” have continued into the era of the third-generation bicycle, originally called a “safety.”? That is, the familiar configuration with two equal sized wheels, the rear one driven by a chain?

True, the bicycle would remain a vehicle that one “straddles” like a horse. But its seat would no longer be attached to a “backbone” in the same way that a saddle rests on the back of a horse. Rather, a modern bicycle seat is affixed to a post. And in this context, as Arthur Peck duly noted in his 1896 patent application, “Bicycle-Saddles, [are] more properly speaking, bicycle-seats.”

To understand why the notion of a “bicycle saddle” has persisted to this day, let us turn once again to Chronicling America First, let’s verify that the term remained in use during the bicycle boom. And here I get a rather surprising result: between 1890 and 1900, I find 3,734 instances of “bicycle saddle” versus “only” 1,936 invocations of “bicycle seats.” This suggests that the term “bicycle saddle” not only held its own during the bicycle boom, it actually became the expression of choice!

(Fig. 3) Cleveland Model 69 Bicycle from 1899

Running a similar search for 1900 though 1963 (the most recent year available) I find 2,909 instances of “bicycle saddles” versus 3,033 instances of “bicycle seats.” That’s a virtual “dead heat” (to borrow another equestrian expression!)!

And it all but confirms Jesse’s conclusion that the terms “bicycle saddle” and “bicycle seat” have indeed long been interchangeable.

But the question remains: why has the notion of a bicycle “saddle” persisted for so long during an era in which the expression “bicycle seat” is arguably more appropriate?

Brooks company of Birmingham & saddles

Perhaps the stored history of the Brooks company of Birmingham, England offers some clues. It was founded in 1866 by J. B. Brooks to manufacture saddles for horses. In 1878, when he was in his early thirties, Brooks took up high-wheel riding. He soon found his seat unsatisfactory, however, and so he began to produce what would become his company’s mainstay: bicycle “saddles.” Of course, his business flourished during the safety boom. Interestingly, though, he continued to bill his product as a “saddle,” not as a “seat.” Even after he died in 1921, the company would consistently advertise bicycle “saddles.”

Image Source: (Spencer, 1877)

“But for those thoroughbreds more attuned to the bicycle’s equestrian roots, “saddle” was—and remains—the preferred term”

Conclusion

So here’s my “working” theory to explain the enduring popularity of the term “bicycle saddle”: its longterm survival was assured during the 1890s boom because it offered long-time cyclists a way to signal that they were no “johnny-come-lately”s to what had become a wildly popular sport.

That is, the vernacular might speak of bicycle seats (recall, for example, the immortal line from Harry Dacre’s smash hit of 1892, Daisy Bell: “you’ll look sweet upon the seat of a bicycle built for two”). But for those thoroughbreds more attuned to the bicycle’s equestrian roots, “saddle” was—and remains—the preferred term.

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Read Part One

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About the author

David V. Herlihy is a prominent bicycle historian and author. He is notable for writing Bicycle: The History and the Lost Cyclist: The Epic Tale of an American Adventurer and His Mysterious Disappearance. David graduated from Harvard and is also an alumnus of the Harvard Cycling Club.

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Image sources:

• “Cleveland Model 69 Bicycle, 1899.” Smithsonian Institution [link] (fig.3)

• “Draisine, ca. 1818.” Smithsonian Institution. [link] (fig.1)

• Spencer, C. (1877). The modern bicycle : containing instructions for beginners, choice of a machine, hints on training, road book for England, Wales, &c., &c. London: Frederick Warne And Co. ; New York.

• “Tricycle, ca. 1875.” Smithsonian Institution [link] (fig.2)

• ‌“Velocipede, ca 1869.” Smithsonian Institution. [link] (fig.4)‌

How Many 'Steps' Do You Get Riding a Bicycle?

Ricardo (Pedal Chile guide) getting steps with his bike!

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How Many 'Steps' Do You Get Riding a Bicycle?

According to the Compendium of Physical Activities:

• Bicycling is equal to 220 steps per minute

• 13,200 steps per hour

It would take 46 minutes of cycling to equal 10,000 steps.

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How many ‘steps’ do you get riding an e-bike?

• Riding an e-bike (electronic pedal assist) is equal to about 136 steps per minute

• 8,160 steps per hour

It would take about 1 hour 14 minutes of riding an e-bike to get 10,000 steps.

10,000 'STEPS' & Bicycle Equivalent

13,200 steps / hour

Leisurely Cycling

13,200 steps / hour

19,800 steps / hour

Cycle Class

19,800 steps / hour

18,480 steps / hour

Mountain Biking

18,480 steps / hour

8,160 steps / hour

E-Bike

8,160 steps / hour

17,820 steps / hour

Vigorous Road Cycling

17,820 steps / hour

How many calories does 10,000 “steps” burn?

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“The 10,000 steps/day walking is approximately equivalent to 300 and 400 kcal/day of energy expenditure (depending on walking speed and body size)”

— From the Journal of Health Research

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For the average person, walking 10,000 steps equates to walking 4 to 5 miles (~8km). The typical leisure strolling pace of 2.5 to 3.5 mph (4 to 5 kph), the average person will burn about 325 to 375 calories.

• General Rule of Thumb: 10,000 steps per day is equivalent to about 300 to 400 calories (depending on speed, body size, and intensity)

How many miles on a bike equals 10,000 steps?

• If you’re cycling on relatively flat terrain with minimal wind, 10,000 steps would be equal to 15 to 18 miles.

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How many steps equal a mile on a bike?

• Approximately 605 steps ± 60 equals one mile of bike riding (flat ground).

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Scientifically formulated for speed - learn more

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What Is Better: 10,000 Steps or an Hour of Cycling?

If excluding personal preferences, the two are fairly equal but in different ways:

• Cycling burns more calories than walking

  • Uphill cycling is very inefficient, meaning you will burn even more calories if your ride includes any hills

• Brisk walking is weight-bearing, making it better for bone health

  • At walking speeds ≥ 3 mph (5kph) 10,000 steps a day will maintain bone health (bone mineral density)

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history of the 10,000 steps

A common goal of 10,000 steps has been pushed by the media and is often a default goal for many fitness "wearables.” So, where did this magic number of 10,000 steps come from?

Dr. I-Min Lee, a professor of epidemiology at Harvard and lead author of a 2019 academic paper, decided to unravel the mystery. Dr. Lee’s conclusions:

• Likely derives from the trade name of a 1965 pedometer

• The pedometer was called, Manpo-kei, which translates to “10,000 steps meter” in Japanese

  • The Japanese character also looks similar to a person walking

Dr. Lee, however, isn’t the first person to cite the Japanese company as the ‘inventor’ of the 10,000 step rule.

Back in the 1980s and 1990s, Dr. Yoshiro Hatano was publishing research papers that extolled the merits of 10,000 steps a day. In his view, the proper amount of physical activity to balance out food intake and to maintain a healthy weight was precisely 10,000 steps.

How did Dr. Yoshiro Hatano come to this conclusion?

Marketing…..

Dr. Yoshiro Hatano

Image source: (Crandall, 2015)

Yoshiro began selling the pedometer in the 1960s and marketed it as “manpo-kei” or the 10,000-step meter. Yoshiro is noted for saying that the 10k steps was “ideal for marketing” the Manpo-Kei or pedometer.

Dr. Hatano picked an arbitrary number that was masked in advertising while using his cloak of authority (professor at the Kyushu University of Health and Welfare) to sell it to the masses.

“First, the 10,000 steps recommendation is not something that originates from the WHO, but rather is linked to the development and increasing popularity of pedometers in Japan in the 1960s”

— Dr. Alan J. Gow

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So what is the ideal number???

There is none. A “one size fits all” number is a great sound bite but is unrealistic in the real world.

“walking ≥10,000 steps a day did not translate into meeting public health guidelines. These findings highlight the disparity between the number of steps believed to be needed per day and the recommended time-intensity guidelines to achieve positive health benefits”

— Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation

A 2016 study, from JAMA (The Journal of the American Medical Association), conducted a 2-year study that researched whether wearable fitness devices lead to increased weight loss. The results:

“In this study, the addition of wearable technology to a behavioral intervention was less effective for 24-month weight loss”

— JAMA

• Wearing fitness tracking devices lead to less weight loss compared to the participants who didn’t use any fitness tracking ‘wearables’

• The group that didn’t use fitness tracking devices lost 13 pounds

• The group that did wear the fitness devices lost only 7.7 pounds

While some people say that this is only one study, which of course is true. However, finding valid studies that are not ‘researched’ through the funding of large fitness/health companies is rather challenging.

CONDENSED VERSION & BOTTOM LINE

General physical activity guidelines and fitness trackers encourage adults to get 10,000 steps, most days of the week. As a result, many adults prefer to get their ‘quota’ of ‘steps’ from bike riding. This results in questions about what is the conversion from pedaling to walking steps. Generally speaking, riding a bike is equal to about 220 steps per minute or about 13,200 steps per hour.

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Yes….help me dial-in my ride

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance, a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology, and CPT. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, weight-lifting, sampling yummy craft beers, snowboarding, hiking, & cycling

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More articles from Pedal Chile

Sources:

1. Choi, B.C.K., Pak, A.W.P., Choi, J.C.L. and Choi, E.C.L. (2007). Achieving the daily step goal of 10,000 steps: The experience of a Canadian family attached to pedometers. Clinical & Investigative Medicine, 30(3), p.108.

2. Crandall, T. (2015). 10000 Steps History Dr. Yoshiro Hatano. [online] 10,000 Steps Daily.

3. De Cocker, K., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Brown, W. and Cardon, G. (2009). Moderators and mediators of pedometer use and step count increase in the “10,000 Steps Ghent” intervention. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 6(1), p.3.

4. Ewald B, Attia J, McElduff P. How many steps are enough? Dose-response curves for pedometer steps and multiple health markers in a community-based sample of older Australians. J Phys Act Health. 2014 Mar; 11(3): 509-18.

5. Gow, A.J. (2013). Enhancing brain health: 10,000 steps at a time? Aging Health, 9(3), pp.239–241.

6. Hatano, Y. (1993) Use of the pedometer for promoting daily walking exercise. Journal of the International Committee on Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 29, 4-8.

7. Jakicic, J.M., Davis, K.K., Rogers, R.J., King, W.C., Marcus, M.D., Helsel, D., Rickman, A.D., Wahed, A.S. and Belle, S.H. (2016). Effect of Wearable Technology Combined With a Lifestyle Intervention on Long-term Weight Loss. JAMA, [online] 316(11), p.1161.

8. Lee, I.-M., Shiroma, E.J., Kamada, M., Bassett, D.R., Matthews, C.E. and Buring, J.E. (2019). Association of Step Volume and Intensity With All-Cause Mortality in Older Women. JAMA Internal Medicine, [online] 179(8), pp.1105–1112.

9. Tudor-Locke, C. and Bassett, D.R. (2004). How Many Steps/Day Are Enough? Sports Medicine, 34(1), pp.1–8.

10. TUDOR-LOCKE, C., HATANO, Y., PANGRAZI, R.P. and KANG, M. (2008). Revisiting “How Many Steps Are Enough?” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(Supplement), pp.S537–S543.

11. Wattanapisit, Apichai & Thanamee, Sanhapan. (2017). Evidence behind 10,000 steps walking. Journal of Health Research. 31. 241-248. ‌

12. White, D.K., Tudor-Locke, C., Felson, D.T., Gross, K.D., Niu, J., Nevitt, M., Lewis, C.E., Torner, J. and Neogi, T. (2013). Walking to Meet Physical Activity Guidelines in Knee Osteoarthritis: Is 10,000 Steps Enough? Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 94(4), pp.711–717.

Best Cycling Position For Going Fast |15 Positions with Pics|

Peyresourde, France

What is the best cycling position for going fast?

A 2017 study from the Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands, entitled, “Aerodynamic Analysis of Different Cyclist Hill Descent Positions,” studied 15 different cycling positions during hill descents.

The study was lead by Dr. Bert Blocken, a physics professor, along with 4 additional researchers. All testing was conducted in a wind tunnel at the University of Liège in Belgium.

They studied:

• Fastest downhill position without regard for steering or pedaling

• Examined 6 positions used previously in The Tour de France

• What positions are best for safety and power generation

• The 11 fastest road racing descending positions (in order and by how much faster)

• Time Trial (TT) positions while using a TT bike and TT helmet

Below are the aerodynamic analysis of different hill descent positions (coasting), in order from fastest to slowest, regardless of category, with a description of each:

1 - superman

The “superman” position, is not allowed in races. Dr. Blocken and his research team noted:

“Pedaling is not possible in this “Superman” position and this position is dangerous and irresponsible”

— Dr. Bert Blocken

However, The “Superman” position was the fastest downhill position tested:

• Between 6 to 7% faster than the second-fastest position

• Nearly 25% faster than the slowest position from the study

2 - Time trial top tube

While the riding position is identical to the following position, the bike and helmet are different.

How much faster is the TT helmet and TT bike compared to the following, non-TT equipment? The study doesn’t actually answer that question directly, however, I crunched the data for us.

The results:

• About .5% faster, which roughly equates to $1,200 per extra 1/100 of a percentage increase in speed

• ~ 6% slower than riding like “Superman”

3 - Top tube 4/Top tube safe/peter sagan

The “Top Tube 4” position is the fastest position for road racing (descending). The cyclist in this position sits on the rear part of the top tube with their torso stretched toward the handlebars with their head sufficiency ducked.

Dr. Blocken and his research team choose the name “Top Tube Safe” because “in this position, the body weight is distributed more equally over both wheels.” The researchers also noted that “if pedaling of the cyclist is not needed, the position “Top tube safe” is the best position of the 6 positions tested.”

So how much slower is this position compared to the “Superman” position? About 7% slower

4 - Top Tube 3

This position is nearly identical to the previous or “Top Tube 4/Safe,” however, it is about .6% slower. Though less than a 1% difference might not sound like much, throughout 3 miles or 5 kilometers, this slight adjustment accounts for nearly 2 seconds.

What’s the difference between the “Top Tube 3” and the faster “Top Tube 4” position?

• The main difference is the head is slightly raised in the “Top Tube 3.”

• Just lifting your head, ever so slightly, makes you .6% slower

“The “Top tube 3” position, with the cyclist at the very rear of the top tube and with the torso as horizontal as possible”

— (Blocken et al., 2018)

5 - Pantani

The “Pantani” position, named after the late Italian cyclist, Marco Pantani.

• ~ 10% slower than the “Superman” position

• ~ 3% slower than the fastest road racing descending position (“Top Tube Safe”)

• 2nd fastest downhill road racing position - Excluding the illegal “Superman” and the “Time Trial” position. This position is only slower than the “Top Tube Safe/4” and the nearly identical “Top Tube 3,” which saw a slight lifting of the head

Riding while crouching behind the saddle is ~3% slower than sitting on the top tube.

6 - Back down 2 / puppy paws

This is the fastest position while the cyclist is seated on the saddle. Making it number 1 of only 5 seated positions out of the 15 total descending positions from the study.

• ~ 3% slower than “Top Tube Safe”

• ~ 10% slower than riding in the “Superman”

7 - Top Tube 2

The “Top Tube 2” position is the fastest position that allows for effective pedaling.

The cyclist in this position is sitting more upright compared to the previous top tube positions, but the rearward position on the top tube allows for effective pedaling. If a cyclist were switching from coasting to pedaling, this position would be ideal, as the only adjustment needed for coasting would be a less upright posture.

• ~4% slower than the fastest “Top Tube Safe/4”

8 - back down 1

While the “Back Down 1” is incredibly similar to the “Back Down 2” position, the results are noticeably different.

• ~5% slower than the ideal downhill road race position

• ~ 2% slower than the “Back Up 2” position

• “Superman position is about 12% faster

While this pose is slower than 5 other downhill road racing positions, it is the second fastest posture that allows for functional pedaling.

This might be the best overall position as per the researches:

“If a single best overall position has to be selected, this would be “Back down 1” or “Back horizontal””

— (Blocken et al., 2018)

The reasons being:

• Better than average aerodynamics

• The cyclist can pedal powerfully

• Steering isn’t inhibited

• Weight is centered

9 - Froome

“Of the 11 road race positions analyzed, there are 6 positions that are clearly aerodynamically superior than the “Froome” position.”

— Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics

The reason for the study was inspired by professional cyclist, Chris Froome’s stage 8 of the 2016 Tour de France. In which he famously descended the Peyresourde and won the stage in an unusual position. Froome was sitting on his top tube, with his chest on the handlebars.

Froome’s famed descending position is 7.2% slower than the “Top Tube 4” position, which is the fastest position possible in road racing.

• ~15% slower than the “Superman”

• 7th fastest of the 11 tested downhill road racing positions

  • ~7% slower than the fastest road racing position (“Top Tube Safe/4”)

• 3rd best posture for downhill speed while pedaling

During the Peyresourde stage at The Tour, Froome descended:

• Distance: 9.6 miles (15.5 km)

• Vertical Drop: 3075 feet (937 meters)

• Average speed: 39 mph (63 kph)

• Top speed: 57 mph (91 kph)

10 - Back horizontal/Vincenzo Nibali

A classic riding position, that isn’t the most effective for coasting downhill, but is the 4th best position, if your want to put power on the pedals, and quite possibly the best overall downhill position.

• ~8% slower than the fastest top tube position

• 4th best for pedaling

• Best overall position, along with “Back Down 1”

Even though this position is ranked 8th out of the 11th for downhill road racing speed, the authors say, it might be the best overall position. When considering an ideal position in the real world, cornering, braking, and pedaling, all play a role……not just aerodynamics.

11 - Time trial & time trial helmet

• ~11% slower than “Time Trial Top Tube” position

• ~8% slower than “Top Tube Safety”

12 - top tube 1

Why is the “Top Tube 1” so much slower than the other top tube riding positions?

The rider in this position is sitting further back on the top tube, closer to the saddle. However, the real reason for the decrease in speed is the more upright posture.

• ~8.5 slower than the fastest top tube position

One of the advantages of this position is the ability to crank the pedals:

• 5th best posture for pedal efficiency

13 - Time Trial & Regular Helmet

How much difference does a helmet make?

This position is identical to the previous TT position, except the helmet is a ‘regular’ helmet….so how much slower??? About 3%

• ~14% slower than “Time Trial Top Tube”

14 - elbows

The “Elbows” position, is a seated posture. Overall, the seated positions are significantly slower as the 3 slowest postures are all riding in the saddle.

• ~12% slower than “Top Tube Safe/4”

  • Over a half a minute slower over a downhill distance of only ~3 miles (5km)

15 - Back up

So how much slower is the “Back Up” position, compared to the others?

• The slowest position - “Back Up” is nearly 25% slower than the “Superman”

• ~15% slower than the fastest downhill racing position

• Nearly 40% more drag compared to the top tube positions

• ~12% slower than the fastest seated position (“Back Down 2”)

  • Over the downhill distance of 3.1 miles (5 km), this position is about 35 seconds slower than the “Back Down” and nearly a full-minute slower than the “Superman”

Fastest Road Racing Positions

The figure below, shows all 11 downhill road racing positions, from fastest to slowest. The time difference and percentage were calculated based on:

• A downhill distance of 3.1 miles (5km)

• The cyclist is coasting (no pedaling)

• The position is maintained throughout the entire descent

Source: Bert Blocken, Eindhoven University of Technology & KU Leuven

Notice the time difference of nearly 44 seconds between the fastest road racing position, “Top Tube 4/Safe” and the slowest position, “Back up.”

Final thought

While the study from Dr. Blocken and his research team is certainly interesting, how much is actually applicable to the real world is unknown.

The authors suggest that an “optimal descent might be achieved by combining several positions.” However, they also noted that “additional aerodynamic losses occur by the action of moving from one position to another.”

Ultimately, the best descending position is the position you feel most comfortable in. Riding a bike at speeds close to 60mph, while navigating turns, cars, and other cyclists can end up a disaster in an instant.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, weight-lifting, craft beer, snowboarding, and cycling fast.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

Sources:

1. All images sources (except fig.1) from: Bert Blocken, Eindhoven University of Technology & KU Leuven (specific citations and links below)

2. Blocken, Bert, et al. “Aerodynamic Analysis of Different Cyclist Hill Descent Positions.” Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, vol. 181, Oct. 2018, pp. 27–45.

3. Blocken, B. (2016). The Froome descent aerodynamic analysis and subsequent debate: The day after. [online] www.linkedin.com. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/froome-descent-aerodynamic-analysis-subsequent-debate-bert-blocken/

4. Blocken, Bert. “Which Cyclist Hill Descent Position Is Really Superior? Froome, Pantani, Nibali or Sagan? The Scientific Answer. Part 2.” www.linkedin.com, April 28, 2017.

5. Blocken, Bert. “Part 3: Aerodynamic Drag of the Superman Position (Which Cyclist Hill Descent Position Is Really Superior?).” www.linkedin.com, May 8, 2017.

6. Blocken, Bert. “New results & feedback by pro cyclists: Which cyclist hill descent position is really superior? 15 positions analyzed. The scientific answer. Part 4.” www.linkedin.com, July 20, 2017.

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Can I Mountain Bike While Pregnant

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Can I mountain bike while pregnant?

Whatever you’re doing before pregnancy, continue to do throughout your pregnancy, whether that be jogging, tennis, or mountain biking. If you’re a mountain biker and you become pregnant, now you are a pregnant mountain biker and should continue to mountain bike until it becomes uncomfortable.

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Finding a way to say healthy and happy during pregnancy are doctors’ orders, so continue to do actives that you love.

• Women who participate in regular exercise during pregnancy have “easier” childbirths with a healthier and happy baby and mom.

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“Exercise in pregnancy is safe and desirable, and pregnant women should be encouraged to continue or to initiate such activities that are currently recognized as safe in pregnancy.”

— Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology (medical journal)

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However, there are a few precautions and modifications that should be observed and implemented if you want to continue mountain biking throughout your pregnancy:

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Activities & risk of falling

Dr. Raul Artal (obstetrician) rates mountain biking as “usually safe” and notes,

“remember that mountain biking has a certain amount of inherent risk whether you’re pregnant or not. And the further along you are in your pregnancy, the greater the risk to you and your baby should you fall off the bike.”

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Bicycle Riding = Safe pregnancy Activity

Riding a bicycle is an activity that is recommended during pregnancy by all medical professionals and organizations.

However, Some doctors and institutions, such as the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) don’t recommend:

"Activities that may result in a fall, such as downhill snow skiing, water skiing, surfing, off-road cycling, gymnastics, and horseback riding.”

The actual act of riding a mountain bike isn’t dangerous, but the ACOG’s recommendation of not putting yourself in a position where you could potentially fall is standard advice and commonsense.

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“Exercise activities that do not require a high degree of balance and coordination, quick movements, or involve the risk of falling or fetal trauma are considered safe during pregnancy”

— Current Sports Medicine Reports (clinical sports medicine journal)

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Alternatives & Modifications To Make Mountain Biking Safer During Pregnancy:

1) Avoid technical singletrack and steep climbs. Instead, you can ride:

• The bike path

• Back-roads or double-tracks that have gentle gradients

• Beginner or entry-level trails

• Loops or multi-loop circuits, just in case you experience a flat tire or other mechanical issues, you will be closer to home or the parking lot

• Put your bike on a trainer. You can even use the trainer in the great outdoors…same view with zero trail variables and obstacles

2) Ride flat pedals (avoid toe straps and clipless pedal systems for safety)

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“On a road or mountain bike, stick to paved bike paths (no single track, technical mountain biking!) ”

— Kelly M. Shanahan, M.D.

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Stationary bike & week 25-28

Around week 25-28 you might need to stop biking or make modifications to your bike as your pumping legs start to hit your baby belly and/or your balance regresses:

• Start riding a stationary bike or take a cycle class

• Can switch to a recumbent bicycle

• Raise the handlebar height - Raising the stem will put you in a more upright position, which makes breathing easier

• Ride a cruiser bike - A wider seat plus a more upright posture

• Swap out your saddle for a wider seat - This will make your ride more comfortable. During pregnancy comfort over performance should be a priority

Recumbent bicycle

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“The more upright frame of a mountain or hybrid bike will be easier to ride later in the pregnancy; you may even decide to temporarily replace your regular handlebar stem with an upright tourist stem for maximum comfort ”

— From: Aneema Van Groenou (M.D.) in "The Active Woman’s Guide to Pregnancy"

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Safe Activities = Don't Require Balancing

An article from Current Sports Medicine Reports, the renowned clinical sports medicine journal, says:

“Exercise activities that do not require a high degree of balance and coordination, quick movements, or involve the risk of falling or fetal trauma are considered safe during pregnancy.”

Hiking. With hiking sticks for added stability.

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Mountain Biking: Safety First

While you can still mountain bike while pregnant, it’s best to make good choices. Just keep in mind that your balance will be affected during pregnancy, as your center of gravity changes with your growing baby.

Mountain biking or road cycling involves unknown variables, such as animals, children, and cars. This doesn’t mean you can’t go for a ride, it simply means to ride in less crowded areas while in complete control of your bicycle.

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“If you bike to work, consider changing your route to avoid busy intersections and gravel or otherwise slippery surfaces ”

— From the book: "Fit and Healthy Pregnancy"

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When to start?

Image Source: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG)

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“According to the latest ACOG guidelines, all pregnant women without obstetric and medical contraindications should be encouraged to follow the same exercise guidelines as adults who are not pregnant”

— JAMA (The Journal of the American Medical Association)

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Exercise: Healthy During Pregnancy

Until recently, pregnant women were advised to refrain from exercise, due to fears about risks to the unborn baby.

Today, the latest research shows that not only is exercise safe for active women, but that’s safe to start up exercise during pregnancy for previously non-active women.

A 2017 article from the Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA) says:

“Contrary to previous opinions, pregnancy is now considered an ideal time not only for continuing but also for initiating an active lifestyle.”

Precautions & mountain biking

It’s recommended that pregnant women should exercise in a comfortable environment, which means:

1) Hot & humid conditions should be avoided

Hot & humid conditions should be avoided - Mountain biking in the morning or evening is a better option if you live in a hot/humid climate

2) Maintain Hydration

Maintain hydration - Good advice whether you’re pregnant or not

3) Avoid high-intensity Cycling

Avoid high-intensity cycling (greater than 90% of your HRmax): Now is not the time to begin hill training or climbing steep and technical terrain:

• Exercising at this high of intensity will divert blood to your working muscles, which could decrease the amount of oxygen to the baby in the womb

• Also, working out at vigorous intensities could lead to dehydration or hyperthermia (overheating). This is bad, particularly during the first trimester as overheating can have teratogenic effects (interference with protein synthesis) on your unborn baby

• Keep in mind that HR is more difficult to calculate while pregnant. Exercise intensity should be light enough to allow for a conversation. This means that you shouldn’t experience shortness of breath or exhaustion (Resting HR is elevated during pregnancy, which reduces your functional HR)

Slower, Shorter, Flatter & More Rest

Mountain biking may require shorter distances, slower speeds, flatter terrain, and more and frequent rest periods:

1. Shorter Distances

2. Slower Speeds

3. Flatter Terrain

4. Increased rest periods/intervals

Pregnant & Lower Oxygen Reserves

While pregnant, you have lower oxygen reserves, a higher resting heart rate (HR), decreased power-to-weight ratio, and less balance.

• This means you need to ride trails that are flatter and shorter with a few more pictures and water breaks than normal. This is what some people would refer to as leisurely riding, which sure beats a spin class.

Final Thought

If you need to ‘gear up’ for your next ride it’s probably not suitable for mountain biking during pregnancy.

However, maintaining healthy habits should be a priority. Slowing down allows you an opportunity to enjoy the view and explore some new terrain, albeit flatter and wider, but I don’t think your baby will mind the tranquil ride.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, weight-lifting, craft beer, and snowboarding.

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Sources for “Mountain Biking While Pregnant”

“Based on observational studies, maternal physical activity during pregnancy does not seem to negatively influence birth weight or risk of birth weight extremes in healthy, low-risk pregnant women.”

— American Journal of Perinatology Reports

1. ARTAL, RAUL. “Exercise in Pregnancy.” Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 59, no. 3, Sept. 2016, pp. 639–644.

2. Bisson, Michèle, et al. “Physical Activity Volumes during Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies Assessing the Association with Infant’s Birth Weight.” American Journal of Perinatology Reports, vol. 06, no. 02, 27 Apr. 2016, pp. e170–e197.

3. Murray, Linda, et al. The Babycenter Essential Guide to Pregnancy and Birth : Expert Advice and Real-World Wisdom from the Top Pregnancy and Parenting Resource. Emmaus, Penn., Rodale, 2005.

4. Olson, David; Sikka, Robby S.; Hayman, Jacob; Novak, Melissa; Stavig, Christina “Exercise in Pregnancy" Current Sports Medicine Reports: May-June 2009 - Volume 8 - Issue 3 - p 147-153.

5. Perales, María, et al. “Exercise During Pregnancy.” JAMA, vol. 317, no. 11, 21 Mar. 2017, p. 1113, 10.1001/jama.2017.0593. Accessed 26 Mar. 2020.

6. “Physical Activity and Exercise During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period” Obstetrics & Gynecology: April 2020 - Volume 135 - Issue 4 - p 991-999.

7. Pinto, Kristina, and Rachel Kramer. Fit and Healthy Pregnancy : How to Stay Strong and in Shape for You and Your Baby. Boulder, Colorado, Velo Press, 2013.

8. Shanahan, Kelly. Your Over-35 Week-by-Week Pregnancy Guide : All the Answers to All Your Questions about Pregnancy, Birth, and Your Developing Baby. New York, Three Rivers Press, 2001.

9. Van Groenou, Aneema. The Active Woman’s Guide to Pregnancy : Practical Advice for Getting Outdoors When Expecting. Berkeley, Calif., Ten Speed ; Enfield, 2004.