Do I Need Cycling Socks

“There are socks and there are cycling socks, and never twain shall meet!”

— From the book, "Road Cycling Manual"

It’s not difficult to see that sports apparel technology has been making great advancements, particularly regarding our footwear.

Socks are no longer a pair of fabric that simply cover the feet to keep us warm, but items well developed for different specialized activities, environment, and other factors that collectively ensure comfort and optimal performance no matter the situation.

Proper cycling socks, in particular, are a piece of modern tech that adds an impeccable touch of style to an astute rider’s cycling kit.

Cycle-specific socks are:

• Thin and stretchy, which fit snugly in your cycling shoe.

• Made out of Merino wool or synthetic fibers that will wick/absorb sweat.

• Double cuffed, which will grip your leg/ankle.

Cycle-specific socks will not slip, bunch-up, and are thin so they don’t move around causing blisters or pedal inefficiencies.

cycling sock & close-fitting

Cycle-specific socks are thin and stretchy that fit into your cycling shoe like a liner.

Cycling socks are created with a flawless close-fitting element that works in tandem with other components like high thread count and practical design to give you fewer pressure points that can result from micro-vibrations, and seams within the sock’s lining.

That is the ultimate recipe for unmatched comfort over long periods, which makes it ideal for those prolonged moments in your saddle.

Cycling socks: Merino wool vs synthetic fibers

Over the last two decades, the materials manufacturers use to create cycling socks have gone through a radical change; and synthetic fibers are now popularly being used instead of natural fibers. Companies argue that synthetic materials like polyester and nylon can be woven closer together, allowing the sock to stretch or adjust properly according to the shape of the foot, reduce the road grime from getting into the fibers, and wick moisture a lot more efficiently.

The fact that cycling socks are generally created to be thin and snug makes them more important than regular socks to ensure the effort you put into your leg movement while cycling transfers into pedal movement efficiently (note that a flexing shoe diverts some pedaling energy into the overall shoe movement).

Ricardo (far right) who is one of our guides is enjoying a ride in his native Chile.

But are synthetic socks ideal?

Unfortunately, they aren’t.

Merino socks are the real deal

Most manufacturers are doing a great job making synthetic cycling socks- but if you ask me, and any sports professional out there, merino socks are still unbeatable- pretty much like their merino sportswear counterparts such as t-shirts and base layers.

“Most cycling socks are made from a lightweight knit of polyester. Some manufacturers offer merino wool socks, which offer the added benefit of keeping the feet warm in cool weather and cool in hot weather. ”

— Patrick Brady

Merino wool has countless qualities that make it the right material for all the times you need your feet to handle pressure, extreme temperatures, and other factors that can only be experienced in the great outdoors.

Merino wool comprises fibers that have all the qualities to ensure comfort, temperature regulation (keeping your feet cool or warm depending on the environment), and durability.

More specifically, merino socks are:

Soft and snuggly

Ever struggled with cycling because of an itch that won’t stop?

Maybe you’ve heard stories from other people- especially those who wear regular wool socks depicting the struggle. Merino is great if you want to evade the occasional irritation because its fibers are a lot less coarse and thinner than regular wool.

Lightweight

Since merino socks comprise fine fibers, you can imagine that they’re very light – lighter than regular wool socks at least. Anything lightweight wear is ideal for sports even outside cycling- but that’s not all. Lightweight socks are lighter to the feet, thus easier to wear comfortably with shoes and great if you want to avoid blisters.

Odor resistant

Odor is by far the biggest issue when it comes to sports, and particularly cycling. More people dump relatively new socks because of their odor more often than you can imagine.

Did you know that merino socks are made of fibers that deter bacteria? The merino wool also absorbs the odor caused by bacteria, thus trapping the smell and keeping it from accumulating. With merino socks, therefore, you can cycle longer with less worry about scaring your way out of your cycling club again!

Strong and durable

If you are a regular biker, then you know pretty well how fast garments including socks can get torn or break especially during long journeys. The best thing about merino wool is that it is six times stronger than regular cotton, and each one of its fibers can be effectively bent back onto itself over 20,000 times.

A good cotton-based pair of socks will readily break after only 3,200 times! Before the merino socks are produced, they are exposed to a rigorous field test. They pass the test because of the remarkable natural engineering they possess.

Breathable and wick away sweat

Heavy socks are not the only thing that leads to blisters.

Sweaty feet also contribute to the problem massively, and that’s why you need socks made from a material that offers excellent moisture management and resist the buildup of odor.

You also need socks with a material that naturally provides mesh ventilation panels to boost comfort and breath-ability. Merino socks are perfect here because they offer all these benefits naturally. Through capillary action, the socks draw moisture from the source to the surface for evaporation. When this effect is combined with the breath-ability component that is typical of cycling socks, the end result is perfection.

 Cycling sock: Double layer Cuffs

The very top part of a sock is called the cuff, and its primary function is to make the sock cling to your leg. Great cycle-specific socks are double-cuffed, which means they are made with a double-layer of fabric at the top, providing a more secure fit. Nothing is worse than wearing a pair of socks that slide down during a ride with your friends.

Bottom line

It is important to wear socks before you cycle to maximize your performance and comfort. As we’ve seen, however, not all cycling socks are created equal. There are great socks made with excellent modern technology but not a single one of them would beat the good old merino wool cycling socks. You know where to go from here, don’t you?

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our resident badass. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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Sources:

• Brady, P. (2011). The no-drop zone : everything you need to know about the peloton, your gear and riding strong. Birmingham, Al: Menasha Ridge Press.

• Edwardes-Evans, L. (2017). Road cycling manual : the complete step-by-step guide. Sparkford: Haynes Publishing.

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Difference Between Freewheel & Cassette?

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Image Source: (YADAV, SINGH VERMA ,and Farkya, 2015)

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“The gears on the back of your bike are generically referred to as a cluster, but there are really two totally different systems - freewheels and cassettes ”

— Christopher Wiggins

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The rear cogs (gears) are attached to the hub by two different hub systems:

• Cassette hub/freehub

• Freewheel

Although cassettes and freewheels perform the same function (allow you to coast when you stop pedaling) and look almost identical, they have significant mechanical differences and are NOT interchangeable.

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What is the main difference between freewheel and cassette hub?

• The freewheel is a single-unit and the act of pedaling tightens the freewheel to the hub. Whereas the cassette hub is a set of gears (cogs) that slides onto a cassette and is held in place by a lock ring.

Both the cassette and freewheel have a FreeHub, which is responsible for coasting.

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“The freehub allows the bike to “freewheel” - to coast without engaging the gears ”

— From the book "The Mountain Bike Experience"

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cassette hub/freehub/unit hub

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“The concept of a ‘cassette’ or unit hub was devised and manufactured by British company Bayliss-Wiley in 1938 and won the Cyclists Touring Club (CTC) award for that year”

— Innovare Journal of Engineering & Technology

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• Free Hub - The first widely successful commercial cassette hub was developed in 1978 by Shimano. Free Hub is a registered trademark of Shimano.

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Want to Go Faster for only $27??

Freewheels

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“An alternative system to the cassette and freehub is the “freewheel””

— Big Blue Book of Bicycle Repair

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Before the 1980s, nearly all bicycles used the screw-on freewheel system. With this hub system, the cogs are attached directly to the hub. As the cyclist pedals, the freewheel is continuously kept tight due to the chain torque.

Two main drawbacks of freewheels:

1. Removing the freewheel is one of the main drawbacks of this system as the high torque from pedaling tightens the freewheel to the hub

2. The bearings are closer together, which equates to lessened leverage compared to the cassette (the cassette is stronger)

• Freewheel is both a verb and a noun. As a verb, “freewheel” means “to coast.”

Descending before the ability to “freewheel.”

Freewheels:

• Found on entry-level bikes (less expensive)
• Vintage bikes use the freewheel hub system

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How to know if you have a freewheel or cassette??

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The simplest way to know if you have either a freewheel or cassette is to look at the rotating action of the innermost tool fitting:

1. Take off the back wheel

2. Spin the gears backward

   • Cassette = tool fitting spins along with the gears

   • Freewheel = tool fitting does NOT rotate along with the gears

*** Look for the innermost tool fitting as some rings will have several tool fittings

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Need help reaching your athletic goals??

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Snowboarding, reader of non-fiction, researcher, & rides MTBs with cassettes.

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More Articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources:

1. Brown, Sheldon. “Freewheel or Cassette?” Www.Sheldonbrown.Com, 2 Aug. 2020.

2. C  Calvin Jones (2013). Big blue book of bicycle repair : a do-it-yourself bicycle repair guide from Park Tool. Saint Paul, Mn: Park Tool Co.

3. C  Calvin Jones (2019). Big blue book of bicycle repair : a do-it-yourself bicycle repair guide from Park Tool. Saint Paul, Mn: Park Tool Co.‌

4. King, Dave, and Michael Kaminer. The Mountain Bike Experience : A Complete Introduction to the Joys of off-Road Riding. New York, Henry Holt And Company, 1996.

5. Park Tool. (2017). Determining Cassette / Freewheel Type. [online]

6. Wiggins, Christopher. Bike Repair & Maintenance. New York, New York, Usa, Alpha, A Member Of The Penguin Group (Usa) Inc, 2014.

7. YADAV, R., SINGH VERMA, N. and Farkya, P. (2015b). Performance of Hybrid System for Automobile. Innovare Journal of Engineering & Technology, 3(1).

Why Do Nurses Wear Compression Socks

Why do many nurses wear compression socks?

Knee-high graduated compression socks are used to aid in the prevention of varicose & spider veins, swelling, blood pooling, night cramps, leg fatigue, and to relieve foot & leg pain as nurses & health care providers spend hours standing during a 12-hour shift.

Why prolonged standing is bad: Blood flow & your Calf muscle

With each beat of your heart, your body pumps freshly oxygenated blood through your arteries, while “old” blood is pumped back to your lungs and heart through your veins.

Image Source: (Johnson, 2002)

When you stand, due to the additional resistance of gravity, the blood that flows down to your legs and feet, needs additional assistance to get back to your heart and lungs for re-oxygenation and detoxification.

The superficial veins, deep veins, bicuspid valves, and the calf-pump, all work together to move blood back to your lungs. The primary driving force of this entire process comes from your calf muscle pump. However, it’s the walking motion that activates your calf pump as the contraction of your calf muscle pushes blood up. When your calf muscle relaxes, this allows blood to refill in empty vein segments and the next walking step keeps the cycle going.

“The terminology varicose vein is derived from Latin language, which means “unnaturally and permanently distended veins””

— International Surgery Journal

Standing, by contrast, doesn’t activate the powerful calf muscle pump since the muscle needs to be contracted to pump blood. This means that the veins of the lower leg have to do the work on their own and that requires them to create high amounts of pressure. Extended periods of high pressure through these veins can cause them to stretch, which also allows blood to flow backward, as the one-way-valves are no longer “air-tight” due to the veins being stretched beyond the valves.

This results in edema, swelling, blood pooling, inflammation, varicose veins, and spider veins, along with a host of other health problems.

compression socks & activation of your calf-muscle-pump

Knee-length graduated compression socks work by applying external compression that is controlled due to the socks being graduated. The compression sock is tightest at the ankle/foot and gradually lessens in pressure towards the knee.

“Compression stockings are clinically effective”

— New England Journal of Medicine

Also, external pressure activates the calf pump, which along with the enhanced pressure gradient speeds up blood flow back to your heart

When you must stand for extended periods, the best way to activate the calf-pump is through external compression, which has the same activating action as walking. This is why compression socks are worn by nurses and shift workers who spend hours standing on their feet.

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The amount of blood pumped out of your heart in 1-minute is known as cardiac output. Your cardiac output is 20-30% lower when standing as opposed to lying down (about venous return).

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Compression socks & varicose veins

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One of the main reasons, besides relieving leg/foot pain that nurses wear compression socks is to help avoid getting varicose or spider veins.

A team of researchers in Denmark followed a group of nearly 5,700 Danish workers over 12 years and determined that workers who stood for more than 6+ hours of their work-shift were at significantly greater risk for varicose veins than those who stood for less than 4 hours.

As nurses must stand for hours, especially OR and ER nurses, who could be standing for over 12-hours straight, a simple, cost-effective, and easy way to keep the blood flowing properly and prevent varicose veins is by wearing compression socks.

Standing: How long is too long?

According to the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety:

“Working in a standing position on a regular basis can cause sore feet, swelling of the legs, varicose veins, general muscular fatigue, low back pain, stiffness in the neck and shoulders, and other health problems”

— The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety

So what is the “ideal” amount of time spent standing per day?

According to Dutch ergonomic guidelines for prolonged standing:

• Green (safe zone) = Not more than 1 hour of continuous standing and not more than 4 hours of total standing per day
• Amber (action recommended) = More than 1 hour of continuous standing OR more than 4 hours of standing in total
• Red (direct action required) = More than 1 hour of continuous standing AND more than 4 hours of standing in total

“In addition, more than one hour’s uninterrupted standing occurred on almost two-thirds of the working days. This is a more difficult problem to solve, because surgeries
sometimes last many hours.”

— AORN Journal

A 2007 study from the Netherlands studied nearly 250 operating room (OR) nurses in 16 dutch hospitals with the “goal of being able to develop a targeted injury prevention policy.”

In certain situations, like when performing surgery, it’s impossible not to stand. Here are some recommendations from the Dutch study:

• Take a micro-break or change posture - “During microbreaks and changes of posture, the muscles have the chance to relax. The flow of blood is restored, oxygen is supplied, and waste matter is carried away and joints can once again be lubricated.”

• Rotate job duties

• Use a stool

While this study made some good recommendations, it was mostly focused on policy changes. In the real world of accidents and chaos, it can be impossible to slip out for a micro-break or rotate jobs, which is why many nurses choose to wear knee-high compression socks.

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Looking for expert Performance Coaching?

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBing, snowboarding, meditation, reader of non-fiction, researcher, & compression sock wearer.

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More Articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources for “Why Do Nurses Wear Compressions Socks”

1. DePopas, Eric, and Matthew Brown. “Varicose Veins and Lower Extremity Venous Insufficiency.” Seminars in interventional radiology vol. 35,1 (2018): 56-61. doi:10.1055/s-0038-1636522

2. Johnson, S. (2002). Compression hosiery in the prevention and treatment of venous leg ulcers. Journal of Tissue Viability, 12(2), pp.67–74.

3. Meijsen, P. and Knibbe, H.J.J. (2007). Prolonged Standing in the OR: A Dutch Research Study. AORN Journal, 86(3), pp.399–414.

4. Raju, S. and Neglén, P. (2009). Chronic Venous Insufficiency and Varicose Veins. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(22), pp.2319–2327

5. Shankar H., K. (2017). Clinical study of varicose veins of lower limbs. International Surgery Journal, 4(2), p.633.

6. Tüchsen F., Hannerz, H. and Burr, H. (2005). Prolonged standing at work and hospitalisation due to varicose veins: a 12 year prospective study of the Danish population. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 62(12), pp.847–850

7. Waters, Thomas R, and Robert B Dick. “Evidence of health risks associated with prolonged standing at work and intervention effectiveness.” Rehabilitation nursing : the official journal of the Association of Rehabilitation Nurses vol. 40,3 (2015): 148-65. doi:10.1002/rnj.166

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Cycling Recovery Tips/Techniques

Large amounts of cash are spent on cycling, all in the hopes of getting faster by buying “better” shoes, clothing, lube, bikes, and components. However, one of the most effective, easiest, and least costly ways to improve performance is through enhanced recovery techniques.

1) quality sleep

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“Optimal sleep quality and quantity is considered the single best recovery strategy available to athletes.”

— From the book, "Cycling Science"

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Studies show that just one night of bad sleep after a hard day of cycling reduces maximum power output the following day by 5%.

• Fellow cyclists who get their typical night of rest under the same conditions only lose 1% of their maximum power.

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“It’s often said that the rider who wins the Tour is the one who’s slept the best. ”

— From "The Science of the Tour De France"

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So what makes sleep so important?

Sleep is widely regarded as the most important recovery strategy for athletes, yet is the least understood…..mainly due to the complexities involved.

The beneficial effects of sleep concerning cycling performance are multiplex and involve multitudinous interactions of the circadian rhythm, metabolic activities, immune function, thermo-regulation, blood flow, mood, and hormonal effects.

During deep sleep, metabolic activities, such as heart rate, breathing, and blood flow to the brain, are at their lowest. It’s at this low-point, your body increases the release of restorative hormones, such as growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone. These 3 hormones are classified as “anabolic steroids,” which means they aid in the repair of muscles and bones.

Hormones & Sleep

The majority of these anabolic hormones are ONLY released during sleep. However, even slight sleep disturbances will throw off their balance. When that happens, your body will halt their production and begin to release cortisol, which is a hormone that helps you deal with stress. Increased cortisol production will make you hyper-alter, which makes going to sleep even harder, thus reducing your anabolic hormone production even further.

Noise, light, and temperature are the 3 main factors affecting sleep quality:

• Fluctuating noise is worse than constant noise. For example, a dog barking is more disturbing to sleep than the constant sounds coming from ventilation equipment or the low humming of a fan

• The sleep-wake cycle follows darkness-light cycles. Appropriately timed light exposure and light avoidance is key to getting a good night sleep and is also an effective treatment of jet lag

• Sleep is HIGHLY regulated by temperature. You fall asleep when your body temperature decreases and wake when it rises. If you are unable to get your body temperature to drop, or if it drops too much, you will not sleep (insomnia)

Sleep: Optimal Sleeping Temperature

The Optimal room temperature for sleeping = 66 to 70°F (19 - 21°C).

• 62 to 82°F (17 - 28°C) is the “extended” range of sleeping temps

• Ideal skin temperature = 88 to 95°F (31 - 35°C)

  • Optimal skin temp without clothes or bedding (like a caveman) = 82–83°F (~28°C)

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Race Across America & Sleep

The Race Across AMerica (RAAM) is a continuous race (no stages) that goes from California to Maryland, a distance of 3,016 miles (4,856km). The solo rider winner finishes the race in 7 to 8 days and averages less than 2 hours of sleep per day. The “typical” contestant averages about 2 hours and 20 minutes of sleep per day.

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2) Active Cool-down (low-intensity cycling)

“A progressive cool-down on the turbo trainer of around 10 minutes helps to remove metabolic waste products from the working muscles simply by maintaining a reasonable blood flow around the body.”

— From the book, "Science of the Tour De France: Training Secrets of the World’s Best Cyclists"

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An active cool-down, such as easy pedaling around the parking lot, helps remove metabolic waste products, like free radicals. If you just stop dead and head straight to the car or craft bar, waste products just sit in the muscle and inhibit the recovery process.

How to cool down?

• Cool-down with 10-12 minutes of easy spinning

• If you don’t have a turbo trainer, you can cycle a few laps around the parking lot or switch shoes and slow jog into a walk for a dozen minutes

10-minutes of easy pedaling will remove lactic acid faster than simply resting and prevents blood pooling, which will reduce the onset of muscle soreness.

3) Compression Socks

“Athletes wearing compression stockings recovered faster than athletes not wearing them”

— James Witts

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The compression socks are really an extension of the cool-down phase. You cool-down to facilitate the removal of lactic acid and free radicals and to keep blood from pooling.

Compression socks also aid in the removal of metabolic waste products and increase blood flow, which will continuously supply your working muscles with fresh oxygenated blood that is free of waste products. The compression also limits inflammation. This means that you get numerous restorative benefits by doing nothing more than wearing a pair of socks…albeit specialized graduated compression socks.

So I can wear just any tight socks?

No. You must wear knee-high graduated compression socks. These socks are tightest around your ankle and gradually reduce pressure as you go up to your knee, with the lowest pressure being just above your calf muscle. If the socks are not graduated, not only will they not work, but they can actually be worse than wearing no socks at all. 

For more info on graduated compression socks, check out this article, where I have detailed all the benefits!

4) Foam Rolling or massage

“Foam rolling effectively reduced delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and associated decrements in most dynamic performance measures.”

— From the Journal of Athletic Training

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Foam rolling is a form of self-massage that allows the user to apply pressure and friction to specific muscles.

What are the benefits of foam rolling?

I self-massage daily…with foam rollers or balls

• Short-term increases in flexibility

• Alleviation of muscle soreness

• Increase of blood flow to the muscles

• Mechanical breakdown of scar tissue

• Increased intramuscular temperature

How to Foam Roll? (quick summary)

1. Place your weight on a ball/foam roller and relax (don’t move)

2. Feel your body “give” in (usually takes 60 seconds minimum per spot)

3. Breathe fully to bring oxygen to the muscle

5) Naps

“There are two “ideal” time durations for a nap.”

— From the journal "Nature and Science of Sleep"

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About 95% of your daily production of growth hormone (GH) is released while you sleep.

Growth Hormone (GH) aids in the repair (and growth) of both muscles and bones. The main reason that pro-athletes take naps is to increase their GH as more sleep is the best way to increase Growth Hormone…….at least legally.

Why is Growth Hormone (GH) so important?

• Repairs and strengthens muscles and bones

• During sleep, it assists the body in burning fat instead of sugars

• Promotes electrolyte balance

• Produces chemicals that help buffer lactate (helps improve lactate threshold)

• Enhances glucose transport during cycling

Napping & Improved Cycling Performance & Recovery

• There are two ideal nap durations

  • 20-minutes - Avoids you from waking up during the ‘slow-wave’ sleep cycle and feeling groggy

  • 90-minutes - This allows for a complete sleep cycle

• Nap in the afternoon is better than a mid-morning nap 

6) Meditation

“Investigations indicate that reactivity and recovery variables relevant to sports, such as blood lactate concentration, heart rate (HR), and oxygen uptake (VO2), are decreased following meditation”

— British Journal of Sports Medicine

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Only 10 to 20 minutes a day of meditation, which doesn’t cost a cent (unless you pay some TM coach thousands of dollars for a “word”) will improve your sleep, boost your immune system, reduce pain, and help put you into a state of flow once your back on the bike.

For those of you who are freighted by the thought of sitting still for even 10 minutes while your “smart” phone is limited to being a stopwatch, then this recovery technique is for you.

7) Recovery drink/food

After finishing your ride, cool-down, and putting on your compression socks, the most important thing you can do to speed up recovery is to replace the sugars, proteins, and fats your body just burned.

A 2015 study, published in the International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism researched post-exercise recovery foods and compared recovery sports supplements to fast foods.

The researchers had participants cycle for 90-minutes, followed by 4-hours of rest and food & drink, and then jump back on the bike and cycle a 12 mile (20km) time trial. During the 4-hour rest period, the cyclist ate and drank either commercially available recovery drinks/bars or fast foods.

The results:

• There was no detectable difference between muscle glycogen, cholesterol, blood glucose, or blood lipids

• No difference between absorption and digestion of the carbs and proteins

• No difference in time trials

The researchers' conclusion:

“fast food sources matched isoenergetically to sports supplements can provide for basic recovery needs of the muscle and may offer a convenient and economical approach to glycogen recovery under some circumstances.”

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Any Balanced Meal Will Do After Cycling

After an intense bike ride, almost any balanced meal and drink will do. The first 30-45 minutes after riding, your body is several times more capable of absorbing and replenishing carbohydrate and protein stores, so it’s important to eat immediately after riding. However, what you eat is less important than the act of eating something soon after finishing your ride.

8) Alcohol & caffeine in moderation

“The dose makes the poison ”

— Accredited to Swiss physician and chemist Paracelsus

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Having a few cups of coffee or a couple of beers does not affect sleep quality and quantity. However, 3+ alcoholic drinks cause disturbances in REM-sleep, particularly during the early part of the sleep cycle.

Homemade Boozy Shakerato - espresso and alcohol - If interested in making it read my post)

It’s not uncommon for people to fall into the “stimulation-sedation loop” by drinking a few french presses of coffee in the morning and ending the day with a couple of bottles of wine.

Drinking in excess lowers muscle repairing hormones, such as HG and testosterone, while also reducing your production of melatonin, causes sleep fragmentation and disturbances. Also, your immune system becomes weakened because your body is unable to produce several pro-inflammatory molecules.

But with that said, as with most things in life, everything in moderation. A couple of alcoholic drinks will actually increase testosterone and decrease stress, both of which will aid you in your post-ride recovery.

What doesn’t work According to “science”

• Contrast Showers - Alternating between hot and cold water while showering. Studies generally find that athletes “perceive benefits,” but researchers are unable to detect any performance enhancements. Its possible athletes don’t spend enough time contrast showering. The few studies that do show benefits, the shower lasts 16 minutes and alternates between hot and cold water every minute, which is about double the length of a typical shower. (~34 gallons or 129 liters of water…just an FYI)

• Cold/Hot Water Immersion - Same results as contrast showers

• Stretching - “There is no evidence to date to suggest that stretching immediately post-exercise enhances the recovery of performance.” (Quote from the Australian Institute of Sport). There are more studies showing the benefits of fast food after exercising than stretching.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBer, snowboarder, meditation, reader of non-fiction, researcher, taster of yummy craft beers, foam rolling, and compression sock wearer.

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More articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources and references:

1. Barnes, M.J. (2014). Alcohol: Impact on Sports Performance and Recovery in Male Athletes. Sports Medicine, 44(7), pp.909–919.

2. Caddick, Z.A., Gregory, K., Arsintescu, L. and Flynn-Evans, E.E. (2018). A review of the environmental parameters necessary for an optimal sleep environment. Building and Environment, 132, pp.11–20.

3. Chennaoui, M., Arnal, P.J., Sauvet, F. and Léger, D. (2015). Sleep and exercise: A reciprocal issue? Sleep Medicine Reviews, 20, pp.59–72.

4. Cheung, S.S. and Zabala, M. (2017). Cycling science. Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics.‌

5. Cramer, M.J., Dumke, C.L., Hailes, W.S., Cuddy, J.S. and Ruby, B.C. (2015). Postexercise Glycogen Recovery and Exercise Performance is Not Significantly Different Between Fast Food and Sport Supplements. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 25(5), pp.448–455.

6. Godfrey, R.J., Madgwick, Z. and Whyte, G.P. (2003). The Exercise-Induced Growth Hormone Response in Athletes. Sports Medicine, 33(8), pp.599–613.

7. Harding, E.C., Franks, N.P. and Wisden, W. (2019). The Temperature Dependence of Sleep. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13.

8. Lahart, I. M., Lane, A. M., Hulton, A., Williams, K., Godfrey, R., Pedlar, C., Wilson, M. G., & Whyte, G. P. (2013). Challenges in Maintaining Emotion Regulation in a Sleep and Energy Deprived State Induced by the 4800Km Ultra-Endurance Bicycle Race; The Race Across AMerica (RAAM). Journal of sports science & medicine, 12(3), 481–488.

9. O’Donnell, S., Beaven, C. and Driller, M. (2018). From pillow to podium: a review on understanding sleep for elite athletes. Nature and Science of Sleep, Volume 10, pp.243–253.

10. Pearcey, G.E.P., Bradbury-Squires, D.J., Kawamoto, J.-E., Drinkwater, E.J., Behm, D.G. and Button, D.C. (2015). Foam Rolling for Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness and Recovery of Dynamic Performance Measures. Journal of Athletic Training, [online] 50(1), pp.5–13.

11. Rae, D.E., Chin, T., Dikgomo, K., Hill, L., McKune, A.J., Kohn, T.A. and Roden, L.C. (2017). One night of partial sleep deprivation impairs recovery from a single exercise training session. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(4), pp.699–712.

12. ‌Solberg, E.E., Ingjer, F., Holen, A., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Nilsson, S. and Holme, I. (2000). Stress reactivity to and recovery from a standardised exercise bout: a study of 31 runners practising relaxation techniques. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(4), pp.268–272.

13. Vaile, J., Hanson, S. and Graham, S. (2010). RECOVERY REVIEW – SCIENCE VS. PRACTICE. [online] www.strengthandconditioning.org.

14. Venter, R., Potgieter, J. and Barnard, J. (2010). The use of recovery modalities by elite South African team athletes. South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 32(1).‌

15. Wiewelhove, T., Döweling, A., Schneider, C., Hottenrott, L., Meyer, T., Kellmann, M., Pfeiffer, M. and Ferrauti, A. (2019). A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Foam Rolling on Performance and Recovery. Frontiers in Physiology, 10.

16. Witts, J. (2016). Science of the tour de france : training secrets of the world’s best cyclists. London: Bloomsbury.

Do compression socks work for cycling?

Knee-High Graduated Compression Socks improve oxygenation, removal of lactic acid & free radicals, which reduces muscle soreness and speeds-up recovery. Compression socks gently squeeze your legs to speed up blood flow back to your heart.

Compression socks have been used in the medical industry for decades, as these socks are known to improve circulation, lymphatic flow, and venous return. Since the late 1980s, graduated compression socks, have been used by cyclists, and other athletes, to improve recovery between rides and training sessions.

The Main Benefits for Cyclists:

• Increased blood flow back to the heart (medically, this is called Venous Return)

• Improved oxygen and nutrition delivery to fatigued leg muscles

• More efficient removal of free radicals and metabolites that have accumulated during the ride

• Compression socks also limit inflammation by creating an external pressure gradient

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“Like many performance interventions that have permeated professional cycling, compression socks started out in the medical sector. Unlike EPO, human growth hormone and testosterone, though, their use in professional cycling is legal - well, in training and recovery anyway.”

— From the book, "Science of the Tour De France: Training Secrets of the World’s Best Cyclists"

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How compression socks work

Compression garments, including compression socks, all function based on the premises of applied pressure and skin coverage. Compression socks improve venous return, which is the blood flow that returns to your heart for re-oxygenation.

How Does a Graduated Compression Sock Function?

• A graduated pressure is applied from your foot up to your calf which gradually decreases continuously from the ankle toward your upper leg 

  • The highest pressure is around your ankle

  • Lowest pressure at the top of the sock or just above your calf muscle 

  • This makes your blood flow faster in your legs

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Your Body’s 2nd “heart”

Bicycle riding will increase the blood flow to your legs. This is accomplished in many ways, but the most significant is from the enhanced action of your Calf Pump, sometimes referred to as your body’s peripheral heart.

Exercising activates the Calf Pump as does external compression…..like from a graduated compression sock.

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Compression socks & intermittent-high-intensity activities

A 2013 meta-analysis, which is a research method that combines the results of many studies into an overall “effect” or outcome, found 423 studies linked to compression clothing, about endurance, power, and/or strength. Of the more than 400 studies, only 31 studies met the criteria to be examined further, with the results being published in the International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance:

• The researchers found that compression clothing, including compression socks, was beneficial for activities that are intermittent-high-intensity. This means that road cyclists and mountain bikers will benefit, as both of these forms of cycling, especially uphill or gradual gradients, require periods of a maximum burst of power to propel the rider to the top

• Endurance based activities, like long-distance jogging, or even leisurely cycling on relatively flat terrain, didn’t receive benefits from compression clothing, as the intensity wasn’t high enough to cause muscle soreness or lactic-acid buildup

• Compression socks helped aid recovery when worn after cycling, as the socks improved lactic acid removal, reductions in muscle swelling, and decreased muscle soreness

Cycling on consecutive days

For bike touring and cycling on consecutive days, wearing compression socks after your ride is one of the best and easiest recovery modalities.

A 2017 meta-analysis from Northumbria University in the UK, concluded that “compression garments would seem to be most effective for recovery from resistance exercise” as well “as for next-day cycling performance.” (emphasis is from this author)

The researchers believe that the compression socks work to aid in muscle recovery mainly through the reduction of inflammation. As you breakdown leg muscles from pedaling uphills, fluid leak into the damaged muscle cells and cause swelling or inflammation. The more fluid that leaks into your muscles, the more muscle damage and soreness you will experience. Compression socks limit the amount of swelling, which reduces soreness, allowing you to tackle multi-day cycle trips.

Free radicals & cycling

During exercise…..like cycling, for example, your body will create free radicals, which is a by-product of the increased breathing rate and caloric burn. A free radical is a molecule or a group of atoms with an odd number of electrons, making them unstable. Since these electrons are missing a “partner,” in search of electron parity, they attack different parts of your body, such as hair, DNA, skin, and muscle tissue.

The muscles of your calf and foot, along with veins and valves, work together to send de-oxygenated (toxic) blood back up to your heart and lungs for cleansing and oxygenation. Wearing compression socks makes this process happen faster and more efficiently.

Stretching vs compression socks

Stretching is the most used recovery strategy, regardless of sport or athletic hobby. Many athletes, including cyclists, stretch before and after their ride as a way to reduce muscle soreness and risk of injury or to improve ride time.

Since stretching is so common, there must be loads of scientific data to support the benefits??? Well, not so much. A 2002 meta-analysis on the “effects of stretching” searched for academic studies related to any form of stretching in relation to injury risk, muscle soreness, or performance changes. The researchers looked through all the relevant studies from 1949 to 2000, combing through 51 years of research and found a whopping 8 studies that met their criteria.

So what did the researchers conclude after reviewing 5 decades of stretching research?

“Stretching before and after exercising does not confer protection from muscle soreness and stretching before exercise does not seem to confer a practically useful reduction in the risk of injury ”

— BMJ (peer-reviewed medical journal)

While scientific evidence doesn’t support stretching, numerous studies have shown the benefits of recovery from wearing compression socks. This doesn’t get much better as all you have to do is wear them after cycling as you enjoy a nice cold beverage.

“we conclude that there are beneficial effects of compression clothing, especially during intermittent high-intensity exercise such as repeated sprinting ”

— International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Final Thought

To actually get the benefits from compression socks, they have to feature graduated pressure, or they will not work, and be nothing more than a typical knee-high sock.

“Findings from the current study suggest that athletes should employ the use of compression garments between exercise bouts to improve recovery and enhance subsequent performance”

— International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Compression is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg), which is the same pressure system that is used to measure your blood pressure. A compression sock that is around 22mmHg at the ankle is the right amount of pressure for most cyclists.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction, researcher, taster of yummy craft beers, and wearer of graduated compression socks.

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MORE ARTICLES from PEDAL CHILE

Sources for this article

“Compared with the placebo group the compression group had a 5.9% improvement in their run time to exhaustion”

— Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

1. Armstrong, S.A., Till, E.S., Maloney, S.R. and Harris, G.A. (2015). Compression Socks and Functional Recovery Following Marathon Running. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29(2), pp.528–533. (fig2)

2. Born, D.-P., Sperlich, B. and Holmberg, H.-C. (2013). Bringing Light into the Dark: Effects of Compression Clothing on Performance and Recovery. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 8(1), pp.4–18.

3. Brophy-Williams, N., Driller, M.W., Kitic, C.M., Fell, J.W. and Halson, S.L. (2017). Effect of Compression Socks Worn Between Repeated Maximal Running Bouts. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 12(5), pp.621–627.

4. Brown, F., Gissane, C., Howatson, G., van Someren, K., Pedlar, C. and Hill, J. (2017). Compression Garments and Recovery from Exercise: A Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine, 47(11), pp.2245–2267.

5. Charles, T., Mackintosh, D., Healy, B., Perrin, K., Weatherall, M. and Beasley, R. (2011). Merino wool graduated compression stocking increases lower limb venous blood flow: A randomized controlled trial. Advances in Therapy, 28(3), pp.227–237.

6. Heiss, R., Hotfiel, T., Kellermann, M., May, M. S., Wuest, W., Janka, R., Nagel, A. M., Uder, M., & Hammon, M. (2018). Effect of Compression Garments on the Development of Edema and Soreness in Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS). Journal of sports science & medicine, 17(3), 392–401. (fig1)

7. Herbert, R.D. and Gabriel, M. (2002). Effects of stretching before and after exercising on muscle soreness and risk of injury: systematic review. BMJ, 325(7362), pp.468–468.

8. medlineplus.gov. (2018). Compression stockings: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. [online]

9. Simon, H.B. (2007). On call: Exercise and free radicals. [online] Harvard Health.

10. Witts, J. (2016). Science of the tour de france : training secrets of the world’s best cyclists. London: Bloomsbury.

Are Merino Wool Socks Itchy?

Merino Sheep

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Are Merino socks itchy?

Mid to high-quality Merino wool socks will not cause itching, as these socks use a fine fiber, which is soft and pliable. However, low-quality Merino Wool or socks blended with inferior textiles can still be itchy, even if predominantly Merino.

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The amazing qualities of MERINO WOOL is well known, such as:

“Wool has the unique ability that it virtually is self-cleaning”

— (Klepp et al., 2010)

• Merino keeps you warm when it's cold and cool when it is hot

• Don’t get creases due to its natural “memory” 

• Absorbs over 30% of its weight in water or perspiration without feeling wet, which makes them perfect for outdoor activities 

• Odor-resistant due to their natural anti-bacterial properties, which means you can wear them multiple times before washing

• MERINO SOCKS DON'T ITCH…..so why doesn’t it itch and are all Merino socks itchiness free? 

Why isn’t Merino Wool itchy?

Traditional wool fibers are large in diameter, making them stiff. It’s this stiffness that rubs against your skin and prickles it, causing you to feel itchy. Merino Wool, by contrast, has very fine threads, which allows the fibers to bend and flex, making them feel soft on your skin.

The tactile discomfort or itchiness that people experience with wool is because traditional wool has thick fibers that poke your skin as opposed to flex around it as do the finer fibers of Merino.

“The threshold force for buckling is highly dependent on fibre diameter.”

Image Source and Text: Dr. Geoff Naylor

Microns, merino measurements & the “itch factor”



What is a micron and how does it relate to wool itchiness? 

A micron or micrometer (μm), is a unit of measure of length and equates to one-thousandth of a millimeter (.000039 inch). The micron is used to measure the thickness or diameter of microscopic objects or microorganisms, including the fiber thickness of wool and other clothing materials.

Any clothing that touches your skin will feel itchy if it has a fiber diameter above 28 microns, such as traditional wool. This is known as the "comfort factor" or "itch factor."

The “Itch Factor” and Merino Wool thickness

• Itch factor = Anything above 28 microns (some experts say 23 microns)

• “Regular” Merino Wool (Super-fine) - 17 to 18.5 microns

• Extra Fine = 15 to 16.5 microns

• Ultra-Fine = Below ~14.9 microns

• Cashmere (for comparison) less than 19 microns

• Traditional Wool = Around 30 microns at a minimum

• Human Hair - about 75 microns

“The Merino wool fiber used in the clothing for this study was all of fine diameter, which has been demonstrated to be comfortable to wear”

— Journal of Dermatitis

A 2019 study published in Dermatitis, evaluated the effects of wearing Merino wool (≤ 17.5 μm) vs standard clothing with kids and adults suffering from eczema (atopic dermatitis). 

The researchers concluded, that “wearing fine-diameter Merino wool garments may actually improve signs and symptoms in patients with mild to moderate atopic dermatitis.” 

If children and adults with eczema can alleviate symptoms by wearing Merino wool and improve their quality of life (according to the researchers), then it’s clear why Merino is synonymous with “soft wool.”

Low-quality merino wool can still be itchy

“Prickle is solely fibre diameter dependent, and amount of prickle increases drastically with small increase in the fibre diameter”

— (Udakhe et al., 2012)

Fiber diameter is the most important measure for Merino Wool comfort. However, low-quality Merino wool clothing can still be itchy as it only takes 2 to 3% of the total fibers to be ‘thick’ to feel prickly. A piece of clothing averaging 16 microns will still feel itchy if 2 to 3% of those fibers are above 28 microns. Also, fiber length can affect the “itch” feel, but to a much lesser extent. Shorter fibers cause more ‘prick’ as more fiber ends make contact with your skin, making shorter fibers feel coarser.

3 things that make you itchier

“superfine and ultra fine Merino wool garments with finer fibre diameters do not activate sufficient c-fibres responsible for itch transmission”

— Acta Dermato Venereologica

• Body part - Hairy body parts are more sensitive to textiles

• Age: As you age, your skin becomes less sensitive, so younger people are more likely to experience itch from clothing……one reason why Grandma makes those super itchy sweaters…it doesn’t bother her.

• High humidity or hot temperatures will soften your skin, which increases sensitivity to discomfort

These three variables can make you more susceptible to itch. However, if you wear extra-fine or ultra-fine Merino wool, you will avoid the itch and enjoy all the wonderful benefits of the greatest natural textile.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction, a taster of craft beers, and lover of Merino wool.

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More Articles from PEDAL CHILE

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Sources

1. Fowler, J.F., Fowler, L.M. and Lorenz, D. (2019). Effects of Merino Wool on Atopic Dermatitis Using Clinical, Quality of Life, and Physiological Outcome Measures. Dermatitis, 30(3), pp.198–206.‌

2. Holman, BWB and Malau-Aduli, AEO 2012, 'A Review of Sheep Wool Quality Traits', Annual Review & Research in Biology, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-14.

3. Klepp, Ingun & Tobiasson, Tone & Bandlien, Charlotte. (2010). A Fresh Look at Wool.

4. Naylor, G. Innovations in wool textile technology Comfortable next-to-the-skin wool.

5. Udakhe, Jayant & Tyagi, Shishir & Shrivastava, Neeraj & Bait, Smita & Bhute, Aniket. (2012). Effect of yarn hairiness, DBD plasma and enzyme treatment on itching propensity of woollen knitwear. Colourage. LXI. 46-51.

6. Zallmann, M., Smith, P., Tang, M., Spelman, L., Cahill, J., Wortmann, G., Katelaris, C., Allen, K. and Su, J. (2017). Debunking the Myth of Wool Allergy: Reviewing the Evidence for Immune and Non-immune Cutaneous Reactions. Acta Dermato Venereologica, 97(8), pp.906–915.

How to Improve Climbing MTB (6 ways to make you faster today)

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Here are some tips to improve your climbing, without the cliche/typical advice of “ride more,” “inflate tires,” “stay hydrated” or “stiffen the shocks.”

1) Increase your power-to-weight ratio (PWR)

Nothing will improve your climbing ability as much, or quickly, as improving your Power to Weight Ratio (PWR). In road cycling and mountain biking, the riders with the greatest PWR can pedal up hills the fastest.

There are 4 primary ways you can increase your PWR:

1. Lose weight (fat)

2. Gain strength (without gaining much weight)

3. Get a lighter bike/components (least improvement of the 4)

4. Lighten the load in your pack

For every half-mile (.8 km) slope at a ~15% gradient, each extra kilogram (2.2 lbs) of weight adds 6 seconds to the climb.

This means that for a cyclist who is 10 pounds overweight, while wearing a backpack weighing an additional 10 pounds, this will slow down the rider by nearly one-minute for every 1/2 mile or 880 yards. 

Now, these figures are calculated based upon road cyclists, which means that they will be magnified while climbing single-track, as the variable terrain and obstacles make climbing, even slower.  

Here a few examples of items that weigh about a kilogram (2.2 lbs):

• Each liter (33.8 oz) of water weighs almost exactly one-kilo 

• A 15L day-pack, with 2 cliff bars, your keys, a spare inner tube, and cell phone 

• 2 cans of 16-oz craft beer 

• 6 to 7 apples

Losing weight is the easiest and fastest way to increase PWR for most recreational mountain bikers. However, gaining strength while keeping your weight the same (or less) is also an effective way to get stronger on the bike and power up those hills easier. 

So what are some ways to get stronger?

• Weight-train: Squats, deadlifts, lunges, pushups, pull-ups, jumps

• High-Intensity-Interval-Training (HIIT): Mountain biking is HIIT. However, if the only time you’re actually performing a HIIT style “workout” is while riding, then it’s time to incorporate a training regime into your routine. Think CrossFit, Cardio Kickboxing, or any training where you go all-out followed by short active recovery periods….and repeat.

2) Get bigger tires

“29er “rolls over” obstacles more easily requiring
less energy to ride”

—  International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences

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There is a reason that 26 inch tires have fallen out of style…..27.5 and 29ers a just better.

“29-inch wheels showed a clear performance advantage during hill climbs”

— International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences

A 2017 study, from Southern Utah University, examined energy expenditure during singletrack riding between 26ers and 29ers. The results:

1. During uphill riding, 29ers had ~7% faster times and speeds with over 10% lower caloric expenditure

2. 29-inch wheels (29ers) hold their momentum over a combination of terrain, which means those bigger tires make it easier to maintain speed over obstacles

A 2016 study titled, The Effect of Mountain Bike Wheel Size on Cross­ Country Performance, studied the performance differences between 26ers, 27.5, and 29ers on a singletrack course.

The researchers’ conclusion:

“The findings indicate that wheel size does not significantly influence performance during cross-country when ridden by trained mountain bikers, and that wheel choice is likely due to personal choice or sponsorship commitments”

-Journal of Sports Sciences

It should be noted that although the researchers didn’t “find” any “significant” differences between the three types of MTBs, there was a clear cut winner.

“Athletes rated the 29“ bike significantly better than the 26“ bike for rolling over obstacles such as roots, for having better traction and for performance in general”

— Journal of Sports Sciences (Hurst et al., 2016)



The study course was only 2 miles long (3.5km), yet the 29ers averaged 12 seconds faster than the 26ers and 21 seconds faster than the 27.5 MTBs. 

The researchers also stated in this same study, “over a full race distance with multiple laps, indicate “29” wheels may potentially offer a greater advantage over smaller wheel sizes.”  

I’m often curious when I read the conclusion section of academic studies, and how the researchers come to their conclusions. Understanding the difference between “significant” in laboratory settings and “significant” in the real-world is not the same. For ANY mountain bicyclist, expending 9.2% less energy while riding a 29er uphill is SIGNIFICANT.

• Actual results from this same study

  • The 29er requires 9.2% less energy to climb a hill compared to 27.5

  • 29ers used 6.7% less effort than the 26ers

What about TIRE WIDTH?

Few studies have researched the width of MTB tires. However, the few studies that have been conducted, under real single-track conditions, find that wider tires equal better.

• Wider tires = increased efficiency (holds momentum better) 

• Rolling Resistance between narrow & wide tires is nearly identical (assuming both are rolling at a normal PSI)  

• Fewer Vibrations: Wider tires dampen obstacles & uneven ground. While this isn’t a direct advantage of uphill climbing, it does make mountain biking more fun and less fatiguing overall

Wider tires are heavier, and if running at low-PSI are harder to propel forward. As with most things, bigger is better……up to a point. Finding the“sweet spot” is dependent on your height & weight, riding style, and what type of terrain you bike.

3) Clean bike & drivetrain

The bicycle drivetrain at a maximum is 98.6% efficient. However, that’s under perfect laboratory conditions, which don’t exist outside. Once your drivetrain has been beaten down by the elements, dirt, grime, or worn teeth, you’re transmission isn’t even performing at 75% efficiency.

Cleaning & lubing chain after a ride

Hitting the trails with a clean and properly lubed chain will make climbing easier, as your not wasting energy with each pedal stroke.

Also, having a clean bike rides faster. Switching gears is easier and more efficient, and for all the upgrades that cost hundreds of dollars to save a few ounces, a half-gallon of caked-on, dried up mud weighs in at about 3 pounds (fresh mud is much heavier), which will add minutes to a short, multi-loop ride.

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Scientifically formulated to go super fast - learn more

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4) Get a shorter crank arm

When you are climbing uphill, trail obstacles such as rocks, roots, and logs will slow you down and cause you to lose momentum. A shorter crank arm allows you to reach peak power significantly faster. In addition to shorter crank arms producing power faster, they also produce more peak power, and have a higher ground clearance, which will help you clear trail obstacles.

So what size crank arm is best?

• No bigger than 170 mm

• 170 mm crank arm is ~22% faster in reaching maximum power output compared to 175 mm and 8% faster than 172.5 mm

“The decreased time to peak power with the greater rate of power development in the 170 mm condition suggests a race advantage may be achieved using a shorter crank length than commonly observed”

— European Journal of Applied Physiology

5) Ride with a dropper post & maximize STA

While most people associate the benefits of a dropper post while descending, there are benefits to having a dropper post while climbing.

“The angle between the seat tube and ground is the most important angle on the bicycle frame ”

— Edmund Burke - PhD

Most cyclists keep their MTB seat lower than their road bike saddle. Riding with your saddle just 1-inch (25 mm) below optimal height reduces your maximum power by ~4 to 8%, with further reductions as you lower your saddle.

Also, keep in mind that as you lower and raise your seat, you’re effectively altering your Seat Tube Angle (STA). You can also change your STA by sliding the seat forward or back.

View fullsize

Seat Tube Angle (STA) of 72°, this STA mimics “shallow” frame geometry and STA of 82°, which mimics “steep” frame geometry.

Image & Caption Source: (Ricard et al., 2006)

• A more forward sitting saddle is good for climbing

• A “steeper” STA is more mechanically efficient. Generally, studies don’t show an increase in power output with a steeper angle but show a reduction of energy expended while generating the same power

  • A forward sitting saddle is known as “steep,” since the angle increases or “steepens”

The ability to adjust your seat on the go during the entire duration of your ride will do wonders for both your climbing and flying.

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For more info about Seat Tube Angle (STA) and how the optimal STA can enhance your ride, read my article, "What is STA?"

“What is Seat Tube Angle?”

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6) Don’t get intimated by “the hill”

20º hill (Image Source: Stefanucci et al., 2005)

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“As has been shown in previous studies, participants grossly overestimated the slant of the hill ”

— Perception & Psychophysics

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Bicyclists hugely overestimate the steepness of hills, especially when tired. 

The hill in the above picture has a 20º slope. The average cyclist would estimate this slope to be 40º when fresh, and over 60º when tired.

Illustration of an alternative account of bicyclist hill misperception based on postural adaptation after extended riding: If one adapts to a lowered head or gaze posture while biking (or hiking), one may misperceive slightly downward gaze as being forward gaze. The image in the bubble represents the perceptual error in geographical slant (increased overestimation) predicted based on a misperception of gaze direction (dashed line) relative to the true straight ahead. Image & Caption Source: (Durgin et al., 2012)

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“Hills do, in-deed, look steeper when we are tired than when we are not”

— (Proffitt et al., 1995)

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Studies also show that hills appear steeper to tired and fatigued bikers. Not because of low blood sugar or dehydration, but because of perception. As you become fatigued, your posture changes, thus altering your line of sight. As your tired eyes focus more on the ground, when you do look ahead, the hills appear much steeper. 

When you attack hills, look ahead and not down. Also, most hills on singletrack trails are not above a 15% gradient. Don’t let your mind trick you into thinking it’s a 30% slope because it’s not, and thoughts like that will only slow you down.

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Is your bike adjusted properly?? If not, we will show you how

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and is an avid MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction, taster of craft beers, and goat-like climber on a bike or hike.

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More Articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources

1. Durgin, F.H., Klein, B., Spiegel, A., Strawser, C.J. and Williams, M. (2012). The social psychology of perception experiments: Hills, backpacks, glucose, and the problem of generalizability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38(6), pp.1582–1595.

2. Hurst, H.T., Sinclair, J., Atkins, S., Rylands, L. and Metcalfe, J. (2016). The effect of mountain bike wheel size on cross-country performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(14), pp.1349–1354.

3. Macdermid, P.W. and Edwards, A.M. (2009). Influence of crank length on cycle ergometry performance of well-trained female cross-country mountain bike athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 108(1), pp.177–182.

4. Proffitt, D.R., Bhalla, M., Gossweiler, R. and Midgett, J. (1995). Perceiving geographical slant. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2(4), pp.409–428.

5. Ricard, M. D., Hills-Meyer, P., Miller, M. G., & Michael, T. J. (2006). The effects of bicycle frame geometry on muscle activation and power during a wingate anaerobic test. Journal of sports science & medicine, 5(1), 25–32.

6. ‌Stefanucci, J.K., Proffitt, D.R., Banton, T. and Epstein, W. (2005). Distances appear different on hills. Perception & Psychophysics, 67(6), pp.1052–1060.

7. Steiner, T., Müller, B., Maier, T. and Wehrlin, J.P. (2015). Performance differences when using 26- and 29-inch-wheel bikes in Swiss National Team cross-country mountain bikers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(15), pp.1438–1444.

8. Taylor, J., Thomas, C. and W. Manning, J. (2017). Impact of Wheel Size on Energy Expenditure during Mountain Bike Trail Riding. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, [online] 5(4), pp.77–84.

9. Wood, B.M. and Albrechtsen, S.J. (2008). Power Development in Hill Climbing as a Function of Bicycle Weight. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(Supplement), p.S42.

Walking Vs Biking Uphill

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When does walking become more efficient than cycling uphill? 

• Road cycling: The "critical slope" or the incline where walking (or running) becomes more efficient than cycling is 13–15% (recreational cyclists) 

• Mountain Biking: The “critical slope” is 8 - 11% before it becomes more efficient to walk then to continue pedaling. 

Walking uphill is approximately 35% more energy efficient compared to cycling up the same hill. 

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20º/36% Hill (Image Source: Stefanucci et al., 2005). It’s significantly easier to walk up this hill

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Cycling on flat ground with no wind is about 4 times more efficient than walking. The keyword in the previous sentence is “flat.” Once you start pedaling up a hill, even a small one, you might find yourself being passed by a walker.

A hill with only a 4% gradient will slow a cyclist down by 75%, while the same hill will slow a walker down by 38% at the same power output.

Why is cycling uphill harder than walking uphill?

Even a small hill can feel like a mountain. (Riding with my friend Josh in DuPont…or in this situation….walking)

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“Cycling uphill is merciless, and it immediately has an enormous impact on your body. Your breathing and heart rhythm react to the smallest slope percentage.”

— Paul Van Den Bosch in "Cycling for Triathletes"

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When cycling on flat terrain the two main opposing forces are rolling resistance (energy loss between wheels and surface) and air resistance. Once you are pedaling uphill, gravity becomes the main resistance.

Why cycling uphill is harder than walking:

View fullsize

Image Source: (Fonda and Sarabon, 2012)

• Holding torque on the pedals - Especially during the cranks dead center, cycling required constant torque on the pedals. Walking, by contrast, there is a pause between each step. 

• Weight of the bicycle - You need to overcome gravity with the additional weight of the bike. 

• Gearing - Most bikes, even in the lowest gear, are still too challenging. This equates to a sub-optimal cadence rate, resulting in a ~25% loss of pedal efficiency.

• Altered walking/running mechanics during uphill climbing - As flat ground turns into hilly terrain, you will automatically take faster steps. Also, you change which part of your foot makes contact with the ground. Both of these changes result in increased activation of your calf, butt, hamstrings, and hip muscles.

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“walking uphill is slightly more efficient (in terms of energy consumption) than level walking ”

— David Gordon Wilson in the book "Bicycling Science"

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• Cycling uphill also changes biomechanics. However, the changes in posture generally make cycling less efficient. Cyclists have to adjust weight forward to keep the front wheel on the ground while stabilizing the body from sliding around in the saddle.

uphill climbing & mountain biking

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“This is more pronounced in MTB where larger tires, unpredictable terrain and repeated climbs due to the circuit nature of MTB requires MTB cyclists to exert significant effort against gravity ”

— (Impellizzeri et al., 2007)

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Taking the gondola up in Telluride…..”slightly” easier than MTBing uphill



Mountain biking uphill is harder compared to road cycling. 

While cycling uphill on the road, the primary resistance is gravity. 

Mountain biking uphill, you have to battle gravity…..and more of it, plus rolling resistance, tire deflection, and loss of momentum from hitting trail obstacles, such as rocks, logs, stones, and roots. 

Mountain bikes also have larger tires that are rolling at a lower PSI, with variable terrains, such as gravel, sand, mud, clay, and dirt, all conditions that make wheels turn slowly.

The dual suspension, dropper post, thru-axles, disc brakes, and larger tires, all add weight to MTBs, making them even more inefficient uphill.

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“Apart from the tyre, the current 29-in. wheels seem to offer lower rolling resistance (by up to 23%) than the previous 26-in. wheels, resulting in a speed increase of 2–3%”

— Journal of Sports Sciences

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How much harder is it to pedal a bike with “fat tires” compared to a road bike?

• Most things being equal (speed, gradient, tire pressure, etc.) it takes nearly 19% more energy to ride a fat tire bike compared to a road bike.

METS & uphill Cycling vs walking

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Continuum of physical activity - (Image Source: Thosar, Saurabh S et al.)

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METS or Metabolic Equivalent of Task is the measure of the ratio of the rate at which a person expends energy of a specific task relative to what you would expend while sitting quietly. Walking uphill at 3.5 mph equates to 6 METS. Which means this activity requires 6 times more oxygen compared to just sitting down chilling in a chair.

• Brisk walking at 3.5 mph on a level ground = 3.8 METS

• Walking uphill at 3.5 mph = 6 METS

• Climbing (walking) uphill with 40-pound backback = 9METS

• Cycling uphill = 10 to 16 METS

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Yes. Show me how!

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Jesse (Director of Pedal Chile) lives in Chile’s Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, sampling craft beer, and mountain biking uphill.

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Sources

1. Ardig, L.P., Saibene, F. and Minetti, A.E. (2003). The optimal locomotion on gradients: walking, running or cycling? European Journal of Applied Physiology, 90(3–4), pp.365–371.

2. The Compendium of Physical Activities Tracking Guide. (n.d.). [online]

3. ‌Fonda, Borut & Sarabon, Nejc. (2012). Biomechanics and Energetics of Uphill Cycling: A review. Kinesiology. 44. 5-17.

4. Fonda, B., Panjan, A., Markovic, G. and Sarabon, N. (2011). Adjusted saddle position counteracts the modified muscle activation patterns during uphill cycling. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 21(5), pp.854–860.

5. ‌Impellizzeri, F.M., Ebert, T., Sassi, A., Menaspà, P., Rampinini, E. and Martin, D.T. (2007). Level ground and uphill cycling ability in elite female mountain bikers and road cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 102(3), pp.335–341.

6. Maier, T., Müller, B., Allemann, R., Steiner, T. and Wehrlin, J.P. (2018). Influence of wheel rim width on rolling resistance and off-road speed in cross-country mountain biking. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37(7), pp.833–838.

7. ‌Stefanucci, J.K., Proffitt, D.R., Banton, T. and Epstein, W. (2005). Distances appear different on hills. Perception & Psychophysics, 67(6), pp.1052–1060.

8. Thosar, S. S., Johnson, B. D., Johnston, J. D., & Wallace, J. P. (2012). Sitting and endothelial dysfunction: the role of shear stress. Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research, 18(12), RA173–RA180. https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.883589

9. Van Den Bosch, P. (2006). Cycling for triathletes endurance. Oxford Meyer & Meyer Sport.

10. Vernillo, G., Giandolini, M., Edwards, W.B., Morin, J.-B., Samozino, P., Horvais, N. and Millet, G.Y. (2016). Biomechanics and Physiology of Uphill and Downhill Running. Sports Medicine, 47(4), pp.615–629.

11. Wilson, David (2004). Bicycling science. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Mit Press.

12. Wilson, David (2020). Bicycling Science. S.L.: Mit Press.

How often should I service my mountain bike?

“Many variables, from your riding style to geographic location will determine your maintenance requirements. The longer you neglect maintenance, the more it becomes critical. ”

— From the Trek Bicycle Owner's Manual

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Service schedules and checklists provide only general guidelines. Specific mountain bike maintenance requirements are particular to each rider. However, keeping your bike clean and properly lubricated with a few periodic checks go a long way in extending the life and performance of your MTB.

Below, is the maintenance schedule from the Santa Cruz User Manual and Yeti Cycles Owner’s Manual. Both of these manuals provide standard industry recommendations.

For a more in-depth schedule, keep reading.

View fullsize

Source: Santa Cruz Bicycles User Manual

View fullsize

Source: Yeti Cycles Owner’s Manual (Yeti SB115, Full suspension carbon frame MTB)

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How often to service mtb suspension

“When you inspect a fork, remove the front wheel, clean the mud off”

—  Zinn & the Art of Mountain Bike Maintenance

If you are a regular mountain biker and ride steep, technical terrain, having your suspension serviced every 20 - 40 rides is recommended.

For more recreational styles of mountain biking, once per year during an annual overhaul/tune-up is suggested.

Service recommendations from RockShox Owner’s Manual (front Fork):

• Every Ride: Clean dirt from upper tubes and wiper seals

• Every 50 Hour: Perform lower leg service

• Every 200 Hours or Yearly: Perform damper and spring service

Maintenance intervals from RockShox Owner’s Manual (rear shock):

• Every Ride: Clean dirt from shock damper body

• Every 50 Hours: Perform air can service

• Every 200 Hours: Perform damper and spring service

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every ride

“MOUNTAIN BIKES NEED FREQUENT CLEANING, MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION. Clean your bike after every ride and conduct a pre-ride inspection before every ride. ”

— Cannondale Mountain Bike Owner's Manual

1. Check Tire Pressure

   • Use gauge, if not, squeeze sidewall at minimum

2. Wipe Down, Bike Chain & Re-lube

   • Make sure all excess lubricant is wiped off

   • If your bike is gritty or dirty or if you rode through mud/rain, then a more in-depth washing/cleaning will be necessary

3. Bounce Bike

   • Listen for any odd noises, rubbing sounds, creaks, or rattles, such as a loose headset

4. Check Suspension System Settings

   • Make sure the suspension system is set-up for your weight and the day’s riding conditions

   • Air shocks gradually lose pressure….just like tires

5. Inspect Frame & Components

   • Look for signs of stress, such as scratches, dents, cracks, or color deformation and make sure all components are securely attached

   • Examine tires for thread cuts

6. Check for Smooth Shifting

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Every 5 - 10 rides

“ANY PART OF A POORLY MAINTAINED BIKE CAN BREAK OR MALFUNCTION LEADING TO AN ACCIDENT”

— Cannondale Mountain Bike Owner's Manual

1. Bolt Check to Torque Spec

   • Check all bolts, pedals, and accessories to make sure that all fasteners are tightened to manufacturer torque specifications

     • Do you need a torque wrench? The answer is yes…for more info check out my article on torque wrenches for mountain bikes

2. Wash/Clean Bike & Lube Chain

   • Keep your bike clean. Dirt CAUSES wear faster than anything else

   • Perform an in-depth cleaning with emphasis on the drivetrain

   • Make sure to wipe off excess lube after application

   • For more info, read my article about “Cleaning Mountain Bikes”

3. Check for Chain Stretch

   • You can use a chain checker tool or a ruler

   • A worn chain will damage the cog teeth

   • For a more in-depth review, read my article, “How Often Should I replace my MTB Chain?”

4. Inspect Brake Pads

   • Check for wear & alignment

5. Check Suspension for Wear

6. Lubricate Suspension Pivots

7. Lube Pedal Bindings

   • If riding clipless pedal system

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Yes! I need more info

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Every 20 - 40 Rides

“Every 25 (hard off-road) to 50 (on-road) hours of riding: Take your bike to your dealer for a complete checkup.”

— Specialized Bicycles Owner's Manual

1. Check Tire Tread & Sidewall Integrity

   • Nothing derails a ride as quickly as a flat tire

   • Low tread or cracked sideways both indicate it’s time for new tires

2. Check the Conditions of Spare Inner Tube

   • Also, a good time to make sure your emergency tools/gear are still in your pack

3. Check Wheels for Trueness & Condition

   • Correct as needed (or bring to a professional as a mistake here will make the tire highly susceptible to catastrophic failure)

4. Service Front & Rear Shock

   • Perform air sleeve service (or have serviced at shop)

   • Drain & replace fork fluid and replace seals

5. Remove & Re-Grease Seatpost

6. Overhaul Pedal Bearings

7. Overhaul Derailleur Jockey Wheel Bushings & Seals

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every 80 - 150 rides

“MOUNTAIN BIKE RIDING IS VERY DIFFERENT FROM RIDING A BIKE ON THE ROAD.”

— Cannondale Mountain Bike Owner's Manual

1. Fork & Rear Shock Need Damper Servicing

   • Take to shop or send to rebuild facility

2. Check Tire Sealant Level (if you have tubeless tires)

   • Add more sealant if low

3. Overhaul Bearings

   • Hubs, Bottom Bracket, Pedals,

4. Bleed Hydraulic Brakes

   • If brake performance has dwindled even though rotors and pads are good it’s time for a brake bleed

5. Replace All Cable Housing

   • Brake, shifter, and dropper post cables

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Annually

1. Yearly Complete Overhaul

   • Disassembly of the complete bike. Clean and re-grease all threaded components upon reassembly

   • Inspection of your entire bike. This means inspecting the frame, suspension, all components, and repair/replace parts as needed

   • Degrease drivetrain & replace chain

   • New handlebar grips

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Every 3+ years

1. Replace

   • Handlebars

   • Fork & rear shock

   • Saddle

   • Seatpost

   • Stem

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Final Thought

Calvin Jones, from ParkTool, says in the Big Blue Book of Bicycle Repair (BBB3):

“The idea of a schedule of maintenance is that it will encourage you to check certain items on a regular basis. No two bikes are used in identical conditions, and your bike may benefit from more checking than a list suggests”

— C. Calvin Jones in the book "Big Blue Book of Bicycle Repair "

The previous quote was from the 2013 edition of the BBB. The 2019 edition, the BBB-4, has eliminated the maintenance schedule. However, as Calvin Jones noted, checking components regularly, is a good idea, since there are no “one size fits all” rules to MTB maintenance intervals.

While many of the servicing recommendations require special tools and knowledge, the 3 most important routine maintenance tasks are simple and easy enough that almost anyone can do them:

1. Regular washing/cleaning of your bike

2. Keeping the chain clean and properly lubricated

3. Keeping all bolts/fasteners torqued to spec (loose parts will lead to all sorts of problems…..and fast)

If you can do these 3 simple maintenance steps, you will significantly prolong the lifespan and performance of your mountain bike.

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Learn how to tune your bike from a pro bicycle mechanic…..for FREE

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, weight-lifting, craft beer, and making hot sauces.

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More Articles from Pedal Chile

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Sources for: “how often to service mountain bike”

1. Cannondale Bikes (n.d.). Bicycle Owner’s Manual. [online]

2. C  Calvin Jones (2013). Big blue book of bicycle repair : a do-it-yourself bicycle repair guide from Park Tool. Saint Paul, Mn: Park Tool Co.

3. C  Calvin Jones (2019). Big blue book of bicycle repair : a do-it-yourself bicycle repair guide from Park Tool. Saint Paul, Mn: Park Tool Co.

4. RockShox Inc. (n.d.). Service Manuals. [online] www.sram.com. ‌

5. Santa Cruz Bicycles (2017). SANTA CRUZ BICYCLES 2017 User Manual. [online]

6. Specialized Bicycle Components (2007). OWNER’S MANUAL SPECIALIZED BICYCLE. [online]

7. Wiggins, C. (2014). Bike repair & maintenance. New York, New York, Usa: Alpha, A Member Of The Penguin Group (Usa) Inc.

8. Yeti Cycles (n.d.). OWNER’S MANUAL YETI SB115. [online]

9. Zinn, L. and Telander, T. (2018). Zinn & the art of mountain bike maintenance : the world’s best-selling guide to mountain bike repair. Boulder, Colorado: Velopress.

Bicycle Saddle vs Seat |Part 2|

By: David V. Herlihy (for Pedal Chile)

I recently received an email from Jesse Wright of Pedal Chile asking me about the historical distinction between a bicycle “saddle” versus a bicycle “seat.” As he has pointed out, both terms are now used interchangeably.

I had to admit that I hadn’t given this interesting question much thought. But his query has prodded me to look deeper into this “pressing” matter.

Here are my tentative conclusions.

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In case you missed it

Part 1, “Why is a Bicycle Seat Called a Saddle”

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definitions: seat vs saddle

First, let’s dispense with basic definitions of the key terms. A “seat” is essentially a generic term for any place where one can park one’s derriere. A “saddle,” in contrast, is a particular kind of seat, namely, one specifically constructed (generally of leather) to rest on the back of an animal.

And so it is a given that a bicycle must have a seat for its driver. But since when was that seat commonly described as a saddle, and why was that concept introduced in the first place?

velocipede

Jesse is undoubtedly correct that the notion of a two-wheeler having a “saddle” dates back to its original configuration: i.e., the kick-propelled “running machine” introduced by the German baron Karl von Drais in 1817.

(Fig. 1) The “running machine” or “hobby horse”

Within two years, variations of this invention, also known as a “velocipede” (from the Latin for “fast feet”) were introduced in Great Britain and United States, where their seats were commonly  called “saddles.”

Here, for example, is an excerpt from a London paper published in March, 1819:

Velocipede. —The pedestrian carriage, invented by Baron Drais, is now getting into celebrity, and is known by the above appellation. It consists of two wheels, one behind the other, connected by perch, on which a saddle is placed

Now why did the press refer to this particular kind of seat as a saddle? As Jesse explains in his article, the answer is quite straightforward. The original velocipede was in essence a mechanical horse—indeed, it was commonly referred to in English as a “hobby horse.” And given that one straddled a two wheeler as one would a horse, it is hardly surprising that its leather seat would be equated to its equestrian counterpart.

hobby horse craze fades away

As I note in my first book Bicycle: the History, the hobby horse craze soon faded, but the elusive quest for a practical human-powered vehicle would continue to unfold for decades. The focus of the experimentation, however, shifted from two-wheelers to vehicles having three or four wheels, designed for one or more drivers or passengers, and powered by various combinations of hand-levers and treadles. The term “velocipede” thus evolved into a generic expression for any such “locomotive” vehicle.

(Fig. 2) Tricycle. Year unknown but thought to be around 1875

In the 1840s and 1850s, Great Britain was the principal “hotbed” of velocipede experimentation. A few artisans, notably Willard Sawyer of Dover, even managed to run a regular business making and selling treadle-driven “quadricycles.” But while these vehicles were also called “velocipedes,” they were apparently no longer said to have “saddles,” but rather “seats.”

Checking the digital British Newspaper Archives 1820-1867, I came across no reference to a “velocipede saddle.” I did, however, find a few mentions of “velocipedes seated for two.”

The reason for the disappearance of the term “velocipede saddle” is self evident: the multi-wheeled “velocipedes” characteristic of this period were essentially mechanical carriages, not horses. They were generally not “straddled” like a horse, nor were their seats fixed to a perch, as they had been on the original velocipede. Rather, the driver or drivers (and any passengers) were seated in a sort of chair or bench supported by the vehicle’s floorboards.

Image Source: (Spencer, 1877)

The notion of a “velocipede saddle,” would, however, make a comeback in the late 1860s after France introduced a new kind of two-wheeler with pedals attached to the front hub. As its popularity grew and spread around the world, the term “velocipede” would once again refer primarily to a two-wheeler. And so, once again, it made sense to designate the seats of these two-wheelers as “saddles.” In fact, one of the first articles published in a U.S. newspaper describing the novelty already invoked the notion of a saddle. The New York Sun declared in October 1868 that “a skillful practitioner starts his velocipede with a push, then springs into his saddle…”

The simpler term “bicycle” is now coined

Around this time, the simpler term “bicycle” was coined to designate the new style of two-wheeler, supplanting the term “velocipede” within a few years. Still, the notion of a “saddle” obviously continued to apply in connection with two-wheelers, however they were called.

Of course, bicycle “saddles” were still essentially “seats”, and so one also finds ample examples of that term in use during the “boneshaker” era (the unflattering term for the first generation bicycle, introduced retrospectively).

(Fig. 4). “Boneshaker” - circa 1869

A quick search of the Library of Congress’s digital newspaper archive (known as “Chronicling America”) suggests that the terms “saddle” and “seat” were virtually interchangeable between 1868 and 1869. In that period, I found 23 articles in which “saddle” and “velocipede” (or “bicycle”) appeared within ten words of each other. A similar search, substituting “seat” for “saddle,” yielded 39 hits.

“high wheeler” era: 1870s & 1890s

High Wheeler

Using the same resource to check the use of these terms during the era of the second generation bicycle, the “high wheeler” of the 1870s and 1880s, I find even greater parity. Between 1870-1890, I got 300 hits for bicycle (or velocipede) “seats,” versus 321 instances of bicycle (or velocipede) “saddles.”

Clearly, the notion of a bicycle having a “saddle” as opposed to a “seat” remained strong from 1868 through at least 1890. Again, though, this finding is not terribly surprising if we consider that throughout this period bicycles typically had their seats affixed to the vehicle’s perch (or its “backbone,” as it was commonly called during the high wheel era).

But why would the notion of a “saddle” have continued into the era of the third-generation bicycle, originally called a “safety.”? That is, the familiar configuration with two equal sized wheels, the rear one driven by a chain?

True, the bicycle would remain a vehicle that one “straddles” like a horse. But its seat would no longer be attached to a “backbone” in the same way that a saddle rests on the back of a horse. Rather, a modern bicycle seat is affixed to a post. And in this context, as Arthur Peck duly noted in his 1896 patent application, “Bicycle-Saddles, [are] more properly speaking, bicycle-seats.”

To understand why the notion of a “bicycle saddle” has persisted to this day, let us turn once again to Chronicling America First, let’s verify that the term remained in use during the bicycle boom. And here I get a rather surprising result: between 1890 and 1900, I find 3,734 instances of “bicycle saddle” versus “only” 1,936 invocations of “bicycle seats.” This suggests that the term “bicycle saddle” not only held its own during the bicycle boom, it actually became the expression of choice!

(Fig. 3) Cleveland Model 69 Bicycle from 1899

Running a similar search for 1900 though 1963 (the most recent year available) I find 2,909 instances of “bicycle saddles” versus 3,033 instances of “bicycle seats.” That’s a virtual “dead heat” (to borrow another equestrian expression!)!

And it all but confirms Jesse’s conclusion that the terms “bicycle saddle” and “bicycle seat” have indeed long been interchangeable.

But the question remains: why has the notion of a bicycle “saddle” persisted for so long during an era in which the expression “bicycle seat” is arguably more appropriate?

Brooks company of Birmingham & saddles

Perhaps the stored history of the Brooks company of Birmingham, England offers some clues. It was founded in 1866 by J. B. Brooks to manufacture saddles for horses. In 1878, when he was in his early thirties, Brooks took up high-wheel riding. He soon found his seat unsatisfactory, however, and so he began to produce what would become his company’s mainstay: bicycle “saddles.” Of course, his business flourished during the safety boom. Interestingly, though, he continued to bill his product as a “saddle,” not as a “seat.” Even after he died in 1921, the company would consistently advertise bicycle “saddles.”

Image Source: (Spencer, 1877)

“But for those thoroughbreds more attuned to the bicycle’s equestrian roots, “saddle” was—and remains—the preferred term”

Conclusion

So here’s my “working” theory to explain the enduring popularity of the term “bicycle saddle”: its longterm survival was assured during the 1890s boom because it offered long-time cyclists a way to signal that they were no “johnny-come-lately”s to what had become a wildly popular sport.

That is, the vernacular might speak of bicycle seats (recall, for example, the immortal line from Harry Dacre’s smash hit of 1892, Daisy Bell: “you’ll look sweet upon the seat of a bicycle built for two”). But for those thoroughbreds more attuned to the bicycle’s equestrian roots, “saddle” was—and remains—the preferred term.

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Read Part One

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About the author

David V. Herlihy is a prominent bicycle historian and author. He is notable for writing Bicycle: The History and the Lost Cyclist: The Epic Tale of an American Adventurer and His Mysterious Disappearance. David graduated from Harvard and is also an alumnus of the Harvard Cycling Club.

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Image sources:

• “Cleveland Model 69 Bicycle, 1899.” Smithsonian Institution [link] (fig.3)

• “Draisine, ca. 1818.” Smithsonian Institution. [link] (fig.1)

• Spencer, C. (1877). The modern bicycle : containing instructions for beginners, choice of a machine, hints on training, road book for England, Wales, &c., &c. London: Frederick Warne And Co. ; New York.

• “Tricycle, ca. 1875.” Smithsonian Institution [link] (fig.2)

• ‌“Velocipede, ca 1869.” Smithsonian Institution. [link] (fig.4)‌

How Many 'Steps' Do You Get Riding a Bicycle?

Ricardo (Pedal Chile guide) getting steps with his bike!

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How Many 'Steps' Do You Get Riding a Bicycle?

According to the Compendium of Physical Activities:

• Bicycling is equal to 220 steps per minute

• 13,200 steps per hour

It would take 46 minutes of cycling to equal 10,000 steps.

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How many ‘steps’ do you get riding an e-bike?

• Riding an e-bike (electronic pedal assist) is equal to about 136 steps per minute

• 8,160 steps per hour

It would take about 1 hour 14 minutes of riding an e-bike to get 10,000 steps.

10,000 'STEPS' & Bicycle Equivalent

13,200 steps / hour

Leisurely Cycling

13,200 steps / hour

19,800 steps / hour

Cycle Class

19,800 steps / hour

18,480 steps / hour

Mountain Biking

18,480 steps / hour

8,160 steps / hour

E-Bike

8,160 steps / hour

17,820 steps / hour

Vigorous Road Cycling

17,820 steps / hour

How many calories does 10,000 “steps” burn?

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“The 10,000 steps/day walking is approximately equivalent to 300 and 400 kcal/day of energy expenditure (depending on walking speed and body size)”

— From the Journal of Health Research

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For the average person, walking 10,000 steps equates to walking 4 to 5 miles (~8km). The typical leisure strolling pace of 2.5 to 3.5 mph (4 to 5 kph), the average person will burn about 325 to 375 calories.

• General Rule of Thumb: 10,000 steps per day is equivalent to about 300 to 400 calories (depending on speed, body size, and intensity)

How many miles on a bike equals 10,000 steps?

• If you’re cycling on relatively flat terrain with minimal wind, 10,000 steps would be equal to 15 to 18 miles.

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How many steps equal a mile on a bike?

• Approximately 605 steps ± 60 equals one mile of bike riding (flat ground).

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Scientifically formulated for speed - learn more

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What Is Better: 10,000 Steps or an Hour of Cycling?

If excluding personal preferences, the two are fairly equal but in different ways:

• Cycling burns more calories than walking

  • Uphill cycling is very inefficient, meaning you will burn even more calories if your ride includes any hills

• Brisk walking is weight-bearing, making it better for bone health

  • At walking speeds ≥ 3 mph (5kph) 10,000 steps a day will maintain bone health (bone mineral density)

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history of the 10,000 steps

A common goal of 10,000 steps has been pushed by the media and is often a default goal for many fitness "wearables.” So, where did this magic number of 10,000 steps come from?

Dr. I-Min Lee, a professor of epidemiology at Harvard and lead author of a 2019 academic paper, decided to unravel the mystery. Dr. Lee’s conclusions:

• Likely derives from the trade name of a 1965 pedometer

• The pedometer was called, Manpo-kei, which translates to “10,000 steps meter” in Japanese

  • The Japanese character also looks similar to a person walking

Dr. Lee, however, isn’t the first person to cite the Japanese company as the ‘inventor’ of the 10,000 step rule.

Back in the 1980s and 1990s, Dr. Yoshiro Hatano was publishing research papers that extolled the merits of 10,000 steps a day. In his view, the proper amount of physical activity to balance out food intake and to maintain a healthy weight was precisely 10,000 steps.

How did Dr. Yoshiro Hatano come to this conclusion?

Marketing…..

Dr. Yoshiro Hatano

Image source: (Crandall, 2015)

Yoshiro began selling the pedometer in the 1960s and marketed it as “manpo-kei” or the 10,000-step meter. Yoshiro is noted for saying that the 10k steps was “ideal for marketing” the Manpo-Kei or pedometer.

Dr. Hatano picked an arbitrary number that was masked in advertising while using his cloak of authority (professor at the Kyushu University of Health and Welfare) to sell it to the masses.

“First, the 10,000 steps recommendation is not something that originates from the WHO, but rather is linked to the development and increasing popularity of pedometers in Japan in the 1960s”

— Dr. Alan J. Gow

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So what is the ideal number???

There is none. A “one size fits all” number is a great sound bite but is unrealistic in the real world.

“walking ≥10,000 steps a day did not translate into meeting public health guidelines. These findings highlight the disparity between the number of steps believed to be needed per day and the recommended time-intensity guidelines to achieve positive health benefits”

— Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation

A 2016 study, from JAMA (The Journal of the American Medical Association), conducted a 2-year study that researched whether wearable fitness devices lead to increased weight loss. The results:

“In this study, the addition of wearable technology to a behavioral intervention was less effective for 24-month weight loss”

— JAMA

• Wearing fitness tracking devices lead to less weight loss compared to the participants who didn’t use any fitness tracking ‘wearables’

• The group that didn’t use fitness tracking devices lost 13 pounds

• The group that did wear the fitness devices lost only 7.7 pounds

While some people say that this is only one study, which of course is true. However, finding valid studies that are not ‘researched’ through the funding of large fitness/health companies is rather challenging.

CONDENSED VERSION & BOTTOM LINE

General physical activity guidelines and fitness trackers encourage adults to get 10,000 steps, most days of the week. As a result, many adults prefer to get their ‘quota’ of ‘steps’ from bike riding. This results in questions about what is the conversion from pedaling to walking steps. Generally speaking, riding a bike is equal to about 220 steps per minute or about 13,200 steps per hour.

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Yes….help me dial-in my ride

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance, a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology, and CPT. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, weight-lifting, sampling yummy craft beers, snowboarding, hiking, & cycling

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More articles from Pedal Chile

Sources:

1. Choi, B.C.K., Pak, A.W.P., Choi, J.C.L. and Choi, E.C.L. (2007). Achieving the daily step goal of 10,000 steps: The experience of a Canadian family attached to pedometers. Clinical & Investigative Medicine, 30(3), p.108.

2. Crandall, T. (2015). 10000 Steps History Dr. Yoshiro Hatano. [online] 10,000 Steps Daily.

3. De Cocker, K., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Brown, W. and Cardon, G. (2009). Moderators and mediators of pedometer use and step count increase in the “10,000 Steps Ghent” intervention. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 6(1), p.3.

4. Ewald B, Attia J, McElduff P. How many steps are enough? Dose-response curves for pedometer steps and multiple health markers in a community-based sample of older Australians. J Phys Act Health. 2014 Mar; 11(3): 509-18.

5. Gow, A.J. (2013). Enhancing brain health: 10,000 steps at a time? Aging Health, 9(3), pp.239–241.

6. Hatano, Y. (1993) Use of the pedometer for promoting daily walking exercise. Journal of the International Committee on Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 29, 4-8.

7. Jakicic, J.M., Davis, K.K., Rogers, R.J., King, W.C., Marcus, M.D., Helsel, D., Rickman, A.D., Wahed, A.S. and Belle, S.H. (2016). Effect of Wearable Technology Combined With a Lifestyle Intervention on Long-term Weight Loss. JAMA, [online] 316(11), p.1161.

8. Lee, I.-M., Shiroma, E.J., Kamada, M., Bassett, D.R., Matthews, C.E. and Buring, J.E. (2019). Association of Step Volume and Intensity With All-Cause Mortality in Older Women. JAMA Internal Medicine, [online] 179(8), pp.1105–1112.

9. Tudor-Locke, C. and Bassett, D.R. (2004). How Many Steps/Day Are Enough? Sports Medicine, 34(1), pp.1–8.

10. TUDOR-LOCKE, C., HATANO, Y., PANGRAZI, R.P. and KANG, M. (2008). Revisiting “How Many Steps Are Enough?” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(Supplement), pp.S537–S543.

11. Wattanapisit, Apichai & Thanamee, Sanhapan. (2017). Evidence behind 10,000 steps walking. Journal of Health Research. 31. 241-248. ‌

12. White, D.K., Tudor-Locke, C., Felson, D.T., Gross, K.D., Niu, J., Nevitt, M., Lewis, C.E., Torner, J. and Neogi, T. (2013). Walking to Meet Physical Activity Guidelines in Knee Osteoarthritis: Is 10,000 Steps Enough? Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 94(4), pp.711–717.

Best Cycling Position For Going Fast |15 Positions with Pics|

Peyresourde, France

What is the best cycling position for going fast?

A 2017 study from the Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands, entitled, “Aerodynamic Analysis of Different Cyclist Hill Descent Positions,” studied 15 different cycling positions during hill descents.

The study was lead by Dr. Bert Blocken, a physics professor, along with 4 additional researchers. All testing was conducted in a wind tunnel at the University of Liège in Belgium.

They studied:

• Fastest downhill position without regard for steering or pedaling

• Examined 6 positions used previously in The Tour de France

• What positions are best for safety and power generation

• The 11 fastest road racing descending positions (in order and by how much faster)

• Time Trial (TT) positions while using a TT bike and TT helmet

Below are the aerodynamic analysis of different hill descent positions (coasting), in order from fastest to slowest, regardless of category, with a description of each:

1 - superman

The “superman” position, is not allowed in races. Dr. Blocken and his research team noted:

“Pedaling is not possible in this “Superman” position and this position is dangerous and irresponsible”

— Dr. Bert Blocken

However, The “Superman” position was the fastest downhill position tested:

• Between 6 to 7% faster than the second-fastest position

• Nearly 25% faster than the slowest position from the study

2 - Time trial top tube

While the riding position is identical to the following position, the bike and helmet are different.

How much faster is the TT helmet and TT bike compared to the following, non-TT equipment? The study doesn’t actually answer that question directly, however, I crunched the data for us.

The results:

• About .5% faster, which roughly equates to $1,200 per extra 1/100 of a percentage increase in speed

• ~ 6% slower than riding like “Superman”

3 - Top tube 4/Top tube safe/peter sagan

The “Top Tube 4” position is the fastest position for road racing (descending). The cyclist in this position sits on the rear part of the top tube with their torso stretched toward the handlebars with their head sufficiency ducked.

Dr. Blocken and his research team choose the name “Top Tube Safe” because “in this position, the body weight is distributed more equally over both wheels.” The researchers also noted that “if pedaling of the cyclist is not needed, the position “Top tube safe” is the best position of the 6 positions tested.”

So how much slower is this position compared to the “Superman” position? About 7% slower

4 - Top Tube 3

This position is nearly identical to the previous or “Top Tube 4/Safe,” however, it is about .6% slower. Though less than a 1% difference might not sound like much, throughout 3 miles or 5 kilometers, this slight adjustment accounts for nearly 2 seconds.

What’s the difference between the “Top Tube 3” and the faster “Top Tube 4” position?

• The main difference is the head is slightly raised in the “Top Tube 3.”

• Just lifting your head, ever so slightly, makes you .6% slower

“The “Top tube 3” position, with the cyclist at the very rear of the top tube and with the torso as horizontal as possible”

— (Blocken et al., 2018)

5 - Pantani

The “Pantani” position, named after the late Italian cyclist, Marco Pantani.

• ~ 10% slower than the “Superman” position

• ~ 3% slower than the fastest road racing descending position (“Top Tube Safe”)

• 2nd fastest downhill road racing position - Excluding the illegal “Superman” and the “Time Trial” position. This position is only slower than the “Top Tube Safe/4” and the nearly identical “Top Tube 3,” which saw a slight lifting of the head

Riding while crouching behind the saddle is ~3% slower than sitting on the top tube.

6 - Back down 2 / puppy paws

This is the fastest position while the cyclist is seated on the saddle. Making it number 1 of only 5 seated positions out of the 15 total descending positions from the study.

• ~ 3% slower than “Top Tube Safe”

• ~ 10% slower than riding in the “Superman”

7 - Top Tube 2

The “Top Tube 2” position is the fastest position that allows for effective pedaling.

The cyclist in this position is sitting more upright compared to the previous top tube positions, but the rearward position on the top tube allows for effective pedaling. If a cyclist were switching from coasting to pedaling, this position would be ideal, as the only adjustment needed for coasting would be a less upright posture.

• ~4% slower than the fastest “Top Tube Safe/4”

8 - back down 1

While the “Back Down 1” is incredibly similar to the “Back Down 2” position, the results are noticeably different.

• ~5% slower than the ideal downhill road race position

• ~ 2% slower than the “Back Up 2” position

• “Superman position is about 12% faster

While this pose is slower than 5 other downhill road racing positions, it is the second fastest posture that allows for functional pedaling.

This might be the best overall position as per the researches:

“If a single best overall position has to be selected, this would be “Back down 1” or “Back horizontal””

— (Blocken et al., 2018)

The reasons being:

• Better than average aerodynamics

• The cyclist can pedal powerfully

• Steering isn’t inhibited

• Weight is centered

9 - Froome

“Of the 11 road race positions analyzed, there are 6 positions that are clearly aerodynamically superior than the “Froome” position.”

— Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics

The reason for the study was inspired by professional cyclist, Chris Froome’s stage 8 of the 2016 Tour de France. In which he famously descended the Peyresourde and won the stage in an unusual position. Froome was sitting on his top tube, with his chest on the handlebars.

Froome’s famed descending position is 7.2% slower than the “Top Tube 4” position, which is the fastest position possible in road racing.

• ~15% slower than the “Superman”

• 7th fastest of the 11 tested downhill road racing positions

  • ~7% slower than the fastest road racing position (“Top Tube Safe/4”)

• 3rd best posture for downhill speed while pedaling

During the Peyresourde stage at The Tour, Froome descended:

• Distance: 9.6 miles (15.5 km)

• Vertical Drop: 3075 feet (937 meters)

• Average speed: 39 mph (63 kph)

• Top speed: 57 mph (91 kph)

10 - Back horizontal/Vincenzo Nibali

A classic riding position, that isn’t the most effective for coasting downhill, but is the 4th best position, if your want to put power on the pedals, and quite possibly the best overall downhill position.

• ~8% slower than the fastest top tube position

• 4th best for pedaling

• Best overall position, along with “Back Down 1”

Even though this position is ranked 8th out of the 11th for downhill road racing speed, the authors say, it might be the best overall position. When considering an ideal position in the real world, cornering, braking, and pedaling, all play a role……not just aerodynamics.

11 - Time trial & time trial helmet

• ~11% slower than “Time Trial Top Tube” position

• ~8% slower than “Top Tube Safety”

12 - top tube 1

Why is the “Top Tube 1” so much slower than the other top tube riding positions?

The rider in this position is sitting further back on the top tube, closer to the saddle. However, the real reason for the decrease in speed is the more upright posture.

• ~8.5 slower than the fastest top tube position

One of the advantages of this position is the ability to crank the pedals:

• 5th best posture for pedal efficiency

13 - Time Trial & Regular Helmet

How much difference does a helmet make?

This position is identical to the previous TT position, except the helmet is a ‘regular’ helmet….so how much slower??? About 3%

• ~14% slower than “Time Trial Top Tube”

14 - elbows

The “Elbows” position, is a seated posture. Overall, the seated positions are significantly slower as the 3 slowest postures are all riding in the saddle.

• ~12% slower than “Top Tube Safe/4”

  • Over a half a minute slower over a downhill distance of only ~3 miles (5km)

15 - Back up

So how much slower is the “Back Up” position, compared to the others?

• The slowest position - “Back Up” is nearly 25% slower than the “Superman”

• ~15% slower than the fastest downhill racing position

• Nearly 40% more drag compared to the top tube positions

• ~12% slower than the fastest seated position (“Back Down 2”)

  • Over the downhill distance of 3.1 miles (5 km), this position is about 35 seconds slower than the “Back Down” and nearly a full-minute slower than the “Superman”

Fastest Road Racing Positions

The figure below, shows all 11 downhill road racing positions, from fastest to slowest. The time difference and percentage were calculated based on:

• A downhill distance of 3.1 miles (5km)

• The cyclist is coasting (no pedaling)

• The position is maintained throughout the entire descent

Source: Bert Blocken, Eindhoven University of Technology & KU Leuven

Notice the time difference of nearly 44 seconds between the fastest road racing position, “Top Tube 4/Safe” and the slowest position, “Back up.”

Final thought

While the study from Dr. Blocken and his research team is certainly interesting, how much is actually applicable to the real world is unknown.

The authors suggest that an “optimal descent might be achieved by combining several positions.” However, they also noted that “additional aerodynamic losses occur by the action of moving from one position to another.”

Ultimately, the best descending position is the position you feel most comfortable in. Riding a bike at speeds close to 60mph, while navigating turns, cars, and other cyclists can end up a disaster in an instant.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, weight-lifting, craft beer, snowboarding, and cycling fast.

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More articles from Pedal Chile

Sources:

1. All images sources (except fig.1) from: Bert Blocken, Eindhoven University of Technology & KU Leuven (specific citations and links below)

2. Blocken, Bert, et al. “Aerodynamic Analysis of Different Cyclist Hill Descent Positions.” Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, vol. 181, Oct. 2018, pp. 27–45.

3. Blocken, B. (2016). The Froome descent aerodynamic analysis and subsequent debate: The day after. [online] www.linkedin.com. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/froome-descent-aerodynamic-analysis-subsequent-debate-bert-blocken/

4. Blocken, Bert. “Which Cyclist Hill Descent Position Is Really Superior? Froome, Pantani, Nibali or Sagan? The Scientific Answer. Part 2.” www.linkedin.com, April 28, 2017.

5. Blocken, Bert. “Part 3: Aerodynamic Drag of the Superman Position (Which Cyclist Hill Descent Position Is Really Superior?).” www.linkedin.com, May 8, 2017.

6. Blocken, Bert. “New results & feedback by pro cyclists: Which cyclist hill descent position is really superior? 15 positions analyzed. The scientific answer. Part 4.” www.linkedin.com, July 20, 2017.

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Can I Mountain Bike While Pregnant

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Can I mountain bike while pregnant?

Whatever you’re doing before pregnancy, continue to do throughout your pregnancy, whether that be jogging, tennis, or mountain biking. If you’re a mountain biker and you become pregnant, now you are a pregnant mountain biker and should continue to mountain bike until it becomes uncomfortable.

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Finding a way to say healthy and happy during pregnancy are doctors’ orders, so continue to do actives that you love.

• Women who participate in regular exercise during pregnancy have “easier” childbirths with a healthier and happy baby and mom.

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“Exercise in pregnancy is safe and desirable, and pregnant women should be encouraged to continue or to initiate such activities that are currently recognized as safe in pregnancy.”

— Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology (medical journal)

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However, there are a few precautions and modifications that should be observed and implemented if you want to continue mountain biking throughout your pregnancy:

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Activities & risk of falling

Dr. Raul Artal (obstetrician) rates mountain biking as “usually safe” and notes,

“remember that mountain biking has a certain amount of inherent risk whether you’re pregnant or not. And the further along you are in your pregnancy, the greater the risk to you and your baby should you fall off the bike.”

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Bicycle Riding = Safe pregnancy Activity

Riding a bicycle is an activity that is recommended during pregnancy by all medical professionals and organizations.

However, Some doctors and institutions, such as the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) don’t recommend:

"Activities that may result in a fall, such as downhill snow skiing, water skiing, surfing, off-road cycling, gymnastics, and horseback riding.”

The actual act of riding a mountain bike isn’t dangerous, but the ACOG’s recommendation of not putting yourself in a position where you could potentially fall is standard advice and commonsense.

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“Exercise activities that do not require a high degree of balance and coordination, quick movements, or involve the risk of falling or fetal trauma are considered safe during pregnancy”

— Current Sports Medicine Reports (clinical sports medicine journal)

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Alternatives & Modifications To Make Mountain Biking Safer During Pregnancy:

1) Avoid technical singletrack and steep climbs. Instead, you can ride:

• The bike path

• Back-roads or double-tracks that have gentle gradients

• Beginner or entry-level trails

• Loops or multi-loop circuits, just in case you experience a flat tire or other mechanical issues, you will be closer to home or the parking lot

• Put your bike on a trainer. You can even use the trainer in the great outdoors…same view with zero trail variables and obstacles

2) Ride flat pedals (avoid toe straps and clipless pedal systems for safety)

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“On a road or mountain bike, stick to paved bike paths (no single track, technical mountain biking!) ”

— Kelly M. Shanahan, M.D.

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Stationary bike & week 25-28

Around week 25-28 you might need to stop biking or make modifications to your bike as your pumping legs start to hit your baby belly and/or your balance regresses:

• Start riding a stationary bike or take a cycle class

• Can switch to a recumbent bicycle

• Raise the handlebar height - Raising the stem will put you in a more upright position, which makes breathing easier

• Ride a cruiser bike - A wider seat plus a more upright posture

• Swap out your saddle for a wider seat - This will make your ride more comfortable. During pregnancy comfort over performance should be a priority

Recumbent bicycle

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“The more upright frame of a mountain or hybrid bike will be easier to ride later in the pregnancy; you may even decide to temporarily replace your regular handlebar stem with an upright tourist stem for maximum comfort ”

— From: Aneema Van Groenou (M.D.) in "The Active Woman’s Guide to Pregnancy"

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Safe Activities = Don't Require Balancing

An article from Current Sports Medicine Reports, the renowned clinical sports medicine journal, says:

“Exercise activities that do not require a high degree of balance and coordination, quick movements, or involve the risk of falling or fetal trauma are considered safe during pregnancy.”

Hiking. With hiking sticks for added stability.

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Mountain Biking: Safety First

While you can still mountain bike while pregnant, it’s best to make good choices. Just keep in mind that your balance will be affected during pregnancy, as your center of gravity changes with your growing baby.

Mountain biking or road cycling involves unknown variables, such as animals, children, and cars. This doesn’t mean you can’t go for a ride, it simply means to ride in less crowded areas while in complete control of your bicycle.

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“If you bike to work, consider changing your route to avoid busy intersections and gravel or otherwise slippery surfaces ”

— From the book: "Fit and Healthy Pregnancy"

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When to start?

Image Source: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG)

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“According to the latest ACOG guidelines, all pregnant women without obstetric and medical contraindications should be encouraged to follow the same exercise guidelines as adults who are not pregnant”

— JAMA (The Journal of the American Medical Association)

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Exercise: Healthy During Pregnancy

Until recently, pregnant women were advised to refrain from exercise, due to fears about risks to the unborn baby.

Today, the latest research shows that not only is exercise safe for active women, but that’s safe to start up exercise during pregnancy for previously non-active women.

A 2017 article from the Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA) says:

“Contrary to previous opinions, pregnancy is now considered an ideal time not only for continuing but also for initiating an active lifestyle.”

Precautions & mountain biking

It’s recommended that pregnant women should exercise in a comfortable environment, which means:

1) Hot & humid conditions should be avoided

Hot & humid conditions should be avoided - Mountain biking in the morning or evening is a better option if you live in a hot/humid climate

2) Maintain Hydration

Maintain hydration - Good advice whether you’re pregnant or not

3) Avoid high-intensity Cycling

Avoid high-intensity cycling (greater than 90% of your HRmax): Now is not the time to begin hill training or climbing steep and technical terrain:

• Exercising at this high of intensity will divert blood to your working muscles, which could decrease the amount of oxygen to the baby in the womb

• Also, working out at vigorous intensities could lead to dehydration or hyperthermia (overheating). This is bad, particularly during the first trimester as overheating can have teratogenic effects (interference with protein synthesis) on your unborn baby

• Keep in mind that HR is more difficult to calculate while pregnant. Exercise intensity should be light enough to allow for a conversation. This means that you shouldn’t experience shortness of breath or exhaustion (Resting HR is elevated during pregnancy, which reduces your functional HR)

Slower, Shorter, Flatter & More Rest

Mountain biking may require shorter distances, slower speeds, flatter terrain, and more and frequent rest periods:

1. Shorter Distances

2. Slower Speeds

3. Flatter Terrain

4. Increased rest periods/intervals

Pregnant & Lower Oxygen Reserves

While pregnant, you have lower oxygen reserves, a higher resting heart rate (HR), decreased power-to-weight ratio, and less balance.

• This means you need to ride trails that are flatter and shorter with a few more pictures and water breaks than normal. This is what some people would refer to as leisurely riding, which sure beats a spin class.

Final Thought

If you need to ‘gear up’ for your next ride it’s probably not suitable for mountain biking during pregnancy.

However, maintaining healthy habits should be a priority. Slowing down allows you an opportunity to enjoy the view and explore some new terrain, albeit flatter and wider, but I don’t think your baby will mind the tranquil ride.

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia. Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, reading, researching, weight-lifting, craft beer, and snowboarding.

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Sources for “Mountain Biking While Pregnant”

“Based on observational studies, maternal physical activity during pregnancy does not seem to negatively influence birth weight or risk of birth weight extremes in healthy, low-risk pregnant women.”

— American Journal of Perinatology Reports

1. ARTAL, RAUL. “Exercise in Pregnancy.” Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 59, no. 3, Sept. 2016, pp. 639–644.

2. Bisson, Michèle, et al. “Physical Activity Volumes during Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies Assessing the Association with Infant’s Birth Weight.” American Journal of Perinatology Reports, vol. 06, no. 02, 27 Apr. 2016, pp. e170–e197.

3. Murray, Linda, et al. The Babycenter Essential Guide to Pregnancy and Birth : Expert Advice and Real-World Wisdom from the Top Pregnancy and Parenting Resource. Emmaus, Penn., Rodale, 2005.

4. Olson, David; Sikka, Robby S.; Hayman, Jacob; Novak, Melissa; Stavig, Christina “Exercise in Pregnancy" Current Sports Medicine Reports: May-June 2009 - Volume 8 - Issue 3 - p 147-153.

5. Perales, María, et al. “Exercise During Pregnancy.” JAMA, vol. 317, no. 11, 21 Mar. 2017, p. 1113, 10.1001/jama.2017.0593. Accessed 26 Mar. 2020.

6. “Physical Activity and Exercise During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period” Obstetrics & Gynecology: April 2020 - Volume 135 - Issue 4 - p 991-999.

7. Pinto, Kristina, and Rachel Kramer. Fit and Healthy Pregnancy : How to Stay Strong and in Shape for You and Your Baby. Boulder, Colorado, Velo Press, 2013.

8. Shanahan, Kelly. Your Over-35 Week-by-Week Pregnancy Guide : All the Answers to All Your Questions about Pregnancy, Birth, and Your Developing Baby. New York, Three Rivers Press, 2001.

9. Van Groenou, Aneema. The Active Woman’s Guide to Pregnancy : Practical Advice for Getting Outdoors When Expecting. Berkeley, Calif., Ten Speed ; Enfield, 2004.

Why is Latin America Called Latin America?

Chilean Patagonia in “Latin America”

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Like most other people worldwide, you may have asked yourself the following questions at least once:

1. Which people are Latin Americans?

2. Where is Latin America?

Or

3. Why are certain people referred to as Latin Americans, yet they don’t speak Latin (or do they)?

And if you are often curious like me, you must have even wondered where the term came from! If you have, then keep reading!

This article brings to you the facts about this elusive term that has been confusing nearly everyone including government agencies in the U.S and beyond for decades.

Let’s begin!

What is Latin America?

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The term “Latin America” is not used consistently by geographers or geopolitical experts. However, The United Nations Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE) limits its definition of Latin America to 20 countries:

• The 10 Spanish-and Portuguese-speaking countries of South America

• The 6 Spanish-speaking countries of Central America

• Mexico

• Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti in the Caribbean region

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Here’s a more detailed list of the individual countries:

Latin America: Defined

Latin America has always been difficult to define to most people, and you’ll sometimes hear it being considered a geographic region that includes the whole Caribbean- that is, all the countries in the Western Hemisphere, south of the United States (regardless of the language they speak).

Other experts define it as a region in which Portuguese, Spanish or French (the Romance languages) are predominantly spoken, or as countries that have a history of Iberian (Portuguese and Spanish) colonialism.

The origin of the name “Latin America”

The romance languages (group of languages that belong to the Indo-European family of languages including:

• French

• Italian

• Romanian

• Spanish

• Portuguese

• Occitan

• Catalan

• Rhaeto-Romanic (originated from Vulgar Latin)

  • Vulgar Latin simply refers to a “later” or “popular” form of Latin whose style is a bit different from the original “classic” (standard) Latin.

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Panama City, Panama

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This means that these languages fall under the name Latin America due to this origin.

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Latin America & Colonialism

Latin America, like many names in the Western Hemisphere, hails from a legacy of colonialism.  As you may recall, during the 18th and 19th centuries, different countries in Europe grabbed different lands around the globe in efforts to establish their empires.

• During this period, Latin America stemmed from a desire to separate countries speaking French, Spanish, and Portuguese from the ones that were speaking German, English, or other languages.

French association?

You may find it ironic that Latin America tends to be associated and identified with Spanish even though its origins are more closely tied to the French.

In the United States, the first known reference to a Latin race came from a French economist known as Michel Chevalier in the 1830s. A couple of decades later, the term appeared in writing during a Paris conference held by Francisco Bilbao, a Chilean politician.

According to many history experts, French intellectuals popularized the terms to refer to the people living in the Western Hemisphere’s former Iberian colonies. They were seeking to justify the imperial ambitions of their country (France) in the New World by highlighting that the Latin race members, including the Central Americans, Mexicans and South Americans had an “innate affinity” with the French, and that these people have been locked in a world struggle against the expansionist U.S and Great Britain.

Southern Hemisphere & The Americanos

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Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

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Did the people of the Southern Hemisphere identify themselves with the Latin race?

No. Initially, they preferred the terms Americanos and America, and these terms were prevalent in the 1810-1820s when the region was waging liberation wars against Spain. As a result, “Americano” developed an anti-colonial meaning and didn’t just encompass Europeans but Africans and mixed-races.

When U.S expansionists began threatening Mexico in the 1830s, Central and South American elites adopted “Hispano-America” to distinguish themselves from the U.S societies.

In the late 1840s, the Southern Hemisphere elites began identifying themselves with the Latin race, and some of them were influenced by Francisco Bilbao who I mentioned earlier. The term was used as early as 1845- in Spanish America when the editors of a Mexican paper stressed that they were members of the Latin race. The term then became prevalent in Bolivia, and then Brazil and Argentina and elsewhere as Spanish American elites held concerns against U.S expansionism toward the Southern Hemisphere.

So, when did it become a concept?

Latin America became a global concept in 1856, during a protest against the expansion of the United States. The U.S president at the time, Franklin Pierce, made a decision to recognize a “piratical” regime that had been established by William Walker in Nicaragua.

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William Walker (Image Source: Webster and Webster)

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Foreign governments were shocked by this decision and immediately sparked talk of war between the European powers in the Caribbean (France, Spain, and Great Britain) and the United States on both sides of the Atlantic.

However, later on, this development eventually led governments to create what would be considered the largest anti-US alliance in the history of Latin America after intellectuals and politicians throughout the region demanded it (when they heard of the U.S President’s decision to recognize William Walker’s regime).

The transnational campaigns that resulted from the alliance caused the concept of Latin American to spread across the continent. You’d be right therefore to say that one of the first anti-US events in history led to the rise of “Latin America.”

did Napoleon coin the term “Latin America”?

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Map of Latin America circa 1826 (Image Source: Bulmer-Thomas)

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It always sounds amazing to hear that the man who reasserted the French influence around the world also coined the term “Latin America.” Wherever you go, it would be a rare spectacle to hear a story about the origins of Latin America without Napoleon at the center of it.

But is it true that Latin America is another one of Napoleon’s great “accomplishments?”

Or is it another historical whim that wouldn’t just leave our online history books?

Here’s the sweet-bitter truth:

Napoleon III did NOT coin the term “Latin America.”

Rather, the term was coined during his rule over France, however, the exact person is unknown. Unsurprisingly, this helped him in his campaign meant to imply a level of cultural similarity between the Latin American region (consisting of people who spoke Portuguese, French, and Spanish) and France that was aimed at assisting him to extend French imperial control over the entire region.

Who then first used the term?

A French man known as Michel Chevalier is the one who is often credited for the coinage of the term. In his writings, he postulated that a section of the Americas has a racial or cultural affinity with the romance cultures (such as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and French) in the 1830s. According to Chevalier, this part was inhabited by a group of people of a “Latin race” that could befriend what was at the time referred to as “Latin Europe.”

Latin American intellectuals and political leaders later took up the idea and yes, it became a thing!

Is Belize, Guyana & Jamaica part of “Latin America”?

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“The expression “Latin America” whose origin is still hotly disputed, at first had little more than geographical significance - it referred to all those independent countries south of the Río Grande in which a language derived from Latin”

— From the book: "The Economic History of Latin America since Independence"

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Some ‘experts’ consider English speaking countries to be part of Latin America.

Some ‘experts’ consider Belize, Guyana, and Jamaica to be part of Latin America. Even though the official language is English in all three of these countries and all are former British Colonies.

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Belize (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons)

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Textbook definitions of Latin America, include both a geographical and language component:

1. Geography - Part of the Americas (including the Caribbean)

2. Language - Speak the Romance languages (derived from Latin) that include Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Catalan, Romanian and Occitan

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However, some social scientists and many world organizations consider, Jamaica, Belize, and Guyana as part of Latin America, even though these 3 countries speak English and are all former British Colonies.

• No definition of 'Latin America’ is accurate, without the inclusion of the complex struggles between conqueror and colonization.

What we call ‘Latin America’ today, is really nothing more than fragmented pieces of an indigenous ‘America,’ pieced together with ‘nation’ names. With this more complete definition, it’s easy to see why some geographers include these countries into the geographical area known as Latin America.

Bottom line

There are many views as to the origin of “Latin America” but one thing has always been clear. Latin America is a general term for speakers and inhabitants of the romance language-speaking regions in parts of North America and most of South America.

These people shared historical experiences of conquest by the Portuguese and Spaniards between the 15th and 18th centuries. They also shared a historic struggle to independence, and as we’ve seen, were brought together under this banner (of freedom and promotion of democracy) by their increasing concerns against U.S expansionist policies and domination. Latin America, as a racial concept exists due to the early U.S threat and the idea that the world’s main Latin power, France, would help curb this threat.

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our resident badass. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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Sources for this article:

1. Bodenheimer, Rebecca. “What Is Latin America? Definition and List of Countries.” ThoughtCo, 28 July 2019, www.thoughtco.com/what-is-latin-america-4691831.

2. Bulmer-Thomas, Victor. The Economic History of Latin America since Independence. Cambridge Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003.‌

3. Eakin, Marshall C. A History of Latin America : Collision of Cultures. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

4. Gobat, Michel. “The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race.” The American Historical Review, vol. 118, no. 5, 25 Nov. 2013, pp. 1345–1375.

5. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Latin America. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. From https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Latin%20America

6. Webster, Edward, and Israel Webster. “William Walker.” Smithsonian Institution, 1857.

7. Wikipedia Contributors. “Latin America.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 8 Mar. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America.

Do You Think Differently in Different Languages?

Does language shape thought and, is our thought changed when we speak a different language?

The answer to this question is complicated. However, the short answer is kinda..but not by much. Language is more involved than just thought and communication. Culture, traditions, lifestyle, habits, family, and society all shape the way we think and talk.

Even though thousands of studies have been conducted and entire books written on this one seemingly simple question, it’s still hotly debated. However, the majority view among serious scholars, linguistics, psychologists, and anthropologists is that thought is NOT dependent on language as language is primarily an instinct and is coded into our DNA. 

What about for people that are actually bilingual and multilingual?…For these polyglots, the answer is still a bit muddled.....but possibly more so, compared to their monolingual peers.

The linguistic relativity hypothesis

The Selk'nam of Tierra del Fuego in Patagonia spoke a Chon language.

The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis, asks the question of whether speakers of different languages think differently.

This theory, which was developed in the 1920s and 1930s, proposes that our mother tongue determines the way we think and perceive the world.

Sapir and Whorf, the originators of this theory branded the theory as “linguistic relativity,” equating it to Einstein’s theory of relativity in terms of ‘importance to humanity.’

Is thought dependent on language?

The long-standing majority view on the Whorfian hypothesis is summarized in Steven Pinker’s 483-page bestseller, The Language Instinct. Pinker wrote:

“Is thought dependent on language? Do people literally think in English, Cherokee, Kivunjo, or by 2050, Newspeak? Or are thoughts couched in some silent medium of the brain—a language of thought or“mentalese”—and merely clothed in words whenever we need to communicate them to a listener? ”

— The Language Instinct (page 56)

In response, Pinker wrote:

“The famous Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic determinism, stating that people’s thoughts are determined by the categories made available by their language, and its weaker version, linguistic relativity, that differences among languages cause differences in the thoughts of their speakers ...is wrong, all wrong”

— The Language Instinct (page 57)

But what about all those Eskimo words for snow?

The Linguistic Society of America (LSA) asks the same question, “Does the language I speak influence the way I think?” In this piece, the LSA gives the classic example of how the Eskimos have dozens or even hundreds of words for snow. The LSA says, “it's simply not true that Eskimos have an extraordinary number of words for snow.”

But what???

“Eskimo -
A member of an indigenous people inhabiting northern Canada, Alaska, Greenland, and eastern Siberia, traditionally living by hunting (especially of seals) and by fishing.”

— Oxford English Dictionary

The LSA goes on to refute this supposed Eskimo claim to fame of snowballing words through two primary reasons of logic:

1) What is an “Eskimo”?

Firstly, there isn’t one Eskimo language.

This archaic and possible offensive word, Eskimo, is generic labeling of hundreds of indigenous societies living throughout the northernmost latitudes of Canada, Alaska, Greenland, and Siberia….an area that spans nearly 4,000 miles (6,400km).

‘Eskimos' speak a variety of languages in the Inuit and Yupik languages. Both of these languages are comprised of even more distinct languages, with each having their own unique dialect.

2) What counts as “a word”? - Roots, words, & independent terms

What counts as a word?

Lu (Pedal Chile Staff) speaks 3 languages. Native Spanish, Portuguese and English

The LSA ponders this question during their analysis of the larger dilemma of language and thought. “In English, we can combine words to get compound forms like snowball and snowflake, and we can add what are called ‘inflectional' endings, to get snowed and snowing.”

The Inuit and Yupik languages both belong to the larger Eskimo-Aleut language family. These languages are agglutinative, which mean they construct complex words out of smaller units.

“Too often the search for shorthand and simple-minded ways to talk about the complexities of language and culture results in excessive reliance on inadequacy detailed illustrations. In the case of the snow example, sheer repetition reinforces it, embedding it ever more firmly in folk wisdom where it is nearly immune to challenge. ”

— Dr. Laura Martin

In English, we can make any number of sentences out of numerous combinations of words. Eskimo-Aleut languages do the same, except they build sentences into single words.

For example, in English, you could say “snow that is so deep you are riding to infinity on a cloud of snowy love.” This is 16 words and is called a sentence. In Inuit and Yupik, this would be a single word.

In English, if we wanted to describe snow as wet, we could say, wet snow, which is two separate words. In Eskimo-Aleut languages, instead of saying ‘wet snow’, they would say the equivalent of ‘wetsnow’, which, of course, is one word.

The Eskimo-Aleut language has an infinite number of possible words for snow……and for fish..music….and everything else.

If you only count the roots, English has a comparable number of ‘snow’ words, such as; sleet, slush, frost, blizzard, avalanche, drift, and flurry. That barely even scratches the snowy surface, since ski lingo has dozens more….powder, crud, crust, corduroy, and corn, just to highlight a few.

grammatical gender & thought

“speakers of different languages tilt in different directions in a woolly task, rather than having differently structured minds’’”

— Steven Pinker

Spanish, French, Italian, German, Russian, Polish, and Arabic are all examples of languages that use a gender system.

Grammatical gender languages assign all nouns to masculine, feminine, and/or neuter categories.

Guy Deutscher, an Israeli linguist and author of the book, Through the Language Glass: Why the World Looks Different in Other Languages, asks the question, “Can the grammatical gender of inanimate objects influence speakers’ associations?”

Dr. Deutscher contends that grammatical gender “does not restrict anyone’s capacity for reasoning” but instead “may come close to being a prison-house” of associations, and these “chains of associations” are “impossible to cast off.”

In, the ‘She-Land,’ Social Consequences of the Sexualized Construction of Landscape in North Patagonia by Paula Gabriela Nu ́n ̃ez, she says:

Penguins in Patagonia

Patagonia was first described in Spanish, which introduces a subtle but important slant. The articles in Spanish grammar have gender; thereby the land is classified as feminine and is a ‘she-land’ directly projected in the ‘mother-land’ metaphor, usually associated with agrarian activities or cultures.

The concept of ‘Pachamama’ (‘Mother Land’ in Quechua) is a classical reference to the original people of the South American Andes. The ‘gendered’ articles not always have these projections. For example, even though ‘landscape’ is a masculine word in Spanish, the land has a stronger female character. This female character ties the non-urban landscape to a feminine consideration, because of its referral to the ‘land’ or ‘nature,’ another female word.

“The Nations depicted Patagonia as a woman because it was incomplete, capricious and contained a small population. And as a woman, free to her initiatives and ideas, she was a danger to herself or to the countries”

— Paula Gabriela Núñez

All nouns in Spanish have grammatical gender:

• la = feminine form of “the”

• el = masculine form of “the”

La Patagonia is feminine, and the masculine form would be El Patagonio, which to Spanish speakers just sounds weird.

Patagonia as a ‘she’ projects ‘mother/female’ qualities and is hard to dissociate those qualities from the place on a subconscious level for native Spanish speakers.

With that being said though, being “shackled” might not be so bad:

“How tedious it would be if bees weren’t “she’s” and butterflies “he’s,” if one didn’t step from feminine pavements to masculine roads, if twelve masculine months didn’t crowd inside one feminine year, if one couldn’t greet Mr. Cucumber and Lady Cauliflower in the proper way. I would never want to forfeit my genders. Along with Aunt Augusta, I would rather say to the English language that to lose one gender may be regarded as a misfortune; to lose both looks like carelessness.”

— Guy Deutscher from "Through the Language Glass"

Thinking differently in a second language

“Noam Chomsky has famously argued that a Martian sci­entist would conclude that all earthlings speak dialects of the same language.”

— Guy Deutscher in Through the Language Glass

When people ask the question, do you think differently in a different language, what they are really asking multilingual speakers is “do you think differently in your second language.”

Since the 1950s, thousands of studies have been conducted. However, the vast majority of research looks predominately at monolinguals.

Language and thought with regards to bilingualism have been largely untouched.

However, the paucity of research that does exist finds that bilinguals and multilingual speakers DO think differently in their second and third languages. But understanding what it means to “think differently in a different language” is a bit nuanced.

Let us go to an example to better illustrate.

Yanira (native Spanish and fluent English)

There are a series of experiments conducted on more than 300 Koreans and U.S nationals that found that thinking in a second language reduces biases that ultimately affects how we perceive risks and benefits. Even though the aim of the research was different (to show where bias occurs or which language is most likely to spur rational decisions in the face of risks and benefits), it serves our purpose perfectly.

Most of us think that they would intuitively make the same choices regardless of whether they are using their first or second language and that the difficulty of using the second or third language would make their decisions a lot less systematic. According to this study, even when you are well fluent in the other language, our thinking would be different, and so would be our decisions.

As humans, our reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought. One of them is quick, unconscious, and emotionally charged. The other is analytical, systematic, and highly cognition-intensive.

My friend Katherine who speaks both English and Spanish fluently

It’s possible that communicating in a learned language would force you to make different decisions from the ones you’d ordinarily make in your first language, which, according to the study in question, would be more deliberate. This is because the role of an unreliable instinct is reduced in the second language. According to research, immediate emotional responses to emotively charged phrases are hushed in non-native languages.

But does this really mean that one is actually thinking any differently or just “getting inside their head” even more so than they already are?

Dr. Aneta Pavlenko, Ukrainian-American linguist, and author of the book, The Bilingual Mind and What It Tells Us About Language and Thought. Is one of the foremost experts on the relationships between bilingualism, cognition, and emotion.

Dr. Pavlenko in numerous articles and books says that you don’t actually think any differently in your second language as your first. What happens, she says, is bilinguals apply the principles of their first language to their second and third languages. While it’s possible to understand the norms of a second language, integrating these linguist differences requires conscious thought. The ability to seamlessly toggle from one language to another happens every day, all over the world, but underneath the second language (L2), the L1 (first language) is always operating.

final thought

While language does not necessarily determine thoughts, and while thinking may be possible without the aid of language, the languages that we speak can have an impact on our overall perspective of our reality. But by how much? About this much (————), más o menos.

My good friend Yanira, who speaks native Spanish and fluent English (L2) says it best, “I’m Yanira in Spanish and I’m Yanira in English.”

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Jesse is the Director for Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and is an avid mountain biker. Hobbies: Reading, writing, researching, and learning.

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Sources for Do You Think Differently in a Different Language:

1. Ayçiçegˇi, Ayşe, and Catherine Harris. “BRIEF REPORT Bilinguals’ Recall and Recognition of Emotion Words.” Cognition and Emotion, vol. 18, no. 7, Nov. 2004, pp. 977–987.

2. Casasanto, Daniel. “Who’s Afraid of the Big Bad Whorf? Crosslinguistic Differences in Temporal Language and Thought.” Language Learning, vol. 58, Dec. 2008, pp. 63–79‌.

3. Dewaele, Jean-Marc, and Seiji Nakano. “Multilinguals’ Perceptions of Feeling Different When Switching Languages.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, vol. 34, no. 2.

4. Deutscher, Guy. Through the Language Glass : How Words Colour Your World. London, Arrow, 2011.

5. “Does the Language I Speak Influence the Way I Think?  “Linguistic Society of America.” Linguisticsociety.Org, 2012.

6. Keysar, B., Hayakawa, S. L., & An, S. G. (2012). The Foreign-Language Effect: Thinking in a Foreign Tongue Reduces Decision Biases. Psychological Science, 23(6), 661–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611432178

7. Kroll. Judith F, and A  M  B  De Groot. Handbook of Bilingualism : Psycholinguistic Approaches. Oxford ; New York, Oxford University Press, 2009.

8. ‌Martin, L., 1986. "Eskimo Words for Snow": A Case Study in the Genesis and Decay of an Anthropological Example. American Anthropologist, 88(2), pp.418-423.

9. Núñez, Paula Gabriela. “The ‘She-Land,’ Social Consequences of the Sexualized Construction of Landscape in North Patagonia.” Gender, Place & Culture, vol. 22, no. 10, 9 Jan. 2015, pp. 1445–1462.

10. Pavlenko, Aneta, and Cambridge University Press. The Bilingual Mind : And What It Tells Us about Language and Thought. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, Druk, 2019.

11. Pavlenko, Aneta. “What Does It Mean to Think in a Second Language?” Psychology Today, 10 Mar. 2015.

12. Stam, Gale. Digital Commons@NLU. “Can an L2 Speaker’ s Patterns of Thinking for Speaking Change?” 2010.

How Often Should You Wash Mountain Bike

Just doing a quick wash after a ride

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How often should I wash my mountain bike?

Ideally, you should do a quick clean and re-lube after every hard ride or two. A more in-depth wash is necessary if you ride through rain or mud.

• Keeping your MTB clean (particularly drivetrain) is the most important preventative maintenance you can perform for your mountain bike.

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1. Clean your mountain bike (after every hard ride or two)

   • Dry it off (thoroughly)

   • Then lubricate the chain (properly)

2. If you don’t want to wash your bike that frequently, at least clean your chain after every ride.

   • 1) Grasp your chain with a rag

   • 2) Turn the crank backward for at least 30 seconds

   • 3) Lubricate chain

   • 4) With clean rag repeat steps 1 & 2 to get off excess lube

A more in-depth cleaning is needed after riding through river crossings

The Importance of a clean mountain bike

“The best thing you can do to lengthen the life of your drivetrain is to keep it clean. Nothing wears out parts faster on a bike than dirt. Dirt and road grime gets in between the chain and sprockets and grinds away at both in a vicious circle. Taking the time to clean your bike not only prolongs its life, but also makes your bike shift better and quieter. ”

— Christopher Wiggins from the book "Bike Repair & Maintenance"

Routine washing of your bike will significantly prolong ALL the components. Especially, the parts of your drivetrain, such as:

• Cogs

• Chainring

• Chain

• Derailleur(s)

Since your drivetrain is exposed to all the elements, it needs frequent cleanings.

How to do a quick mtb wash

There are many different philosophies on this seemingly simple task. Below I have outlined a quick cleaning routine that takes less than 10 minutes and doesn’t require a bike repair-stand. Also, if you clean your drivetrain regularly, you can mostly avoid having to use solvents.

1) Hose your bike down

Hosing bike down after a ride

If you clean your bike regularly, all you need is:

• Soap

• Water

• Sponges

• Brushes

“Wet your bicycle with the hose, then work with the brush from the top down using plenty of soapy water. Rinse the soap off and wipe it down”

— Trek Bikes Owner's Manual

1. Step one: Hose your bike down

   • It’s super important to AVOID using high-pressure washers, such as you find at the car wash or other industrial sprayers

   •  If you use a high pressure nozzle, do not point it at the bike from the side as it can blow the bearing seals inward

     • High-pressure washes can push water past seals in your hubs, bottom bracket (BB), pivot/shock seals, and headset

For a quick wash, you can leave the wheels on. Also, if you don’t have a hose, you can use a water bottle.

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Scientifically formulated to go faster

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2) Scrub entire bike & wheels with hot, soapy water

Scrub a dub-dub

1. Wash with a big sponge for gentle frame cleaning and easy to reach places

2. Use a stiff nylon-bristle brush for tough and hard to reach places

3. Leave the chain, cogs, chainrings, and derailleurs for last and use a separate brush

4. Don’t forget to wash the tires

5. Can clean disc rotors with rubbing alcohol

With this quick wash, I don’t recommend using a degreaser. If you wash your bike frequently, a degreaser is not necessary and can lead to “over-cleaning” your drivetrain.

3) Rinse your Mountain bike

“Jet washers have certainly sped up the process, but they are noisy and wasteful and eventually break down. Pro teams use them for speed, but amateurs shouldn’t”

— Guy Andrews & Rohan Dubash in "Bike Mechanic"

You can hose off your bike or wipe it down with a wet rag. Just remember not to use too powerful of a sprayer.

Once again, avoid getting water into the bearings of the bottom bracket, headset, or hubs.

What if I don’t have a hose?

You can fill up a water bottle and spray onto the bike, working from the top downwards. The soap and scrubbing are what loosens the dirt, and a light rinse will remove the rest of the grime, and soapy residue.

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“Basically, a gentle rain ”

— C. Calvin Jones of ParkTool talking about rinsing a bike

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4) Dry off the bike

Using leaf blower to blow my bike dry

You can use an air compressor, leaf blower, or towel. 

If not, drop your mountain bike a few times from a couple of feet as this will knock off excess water.

Also, wrap a clean towel around the chain and spin the crank in reverse for at least 15 seconds. This will dry the chain, which you want before applying lubricant.

5) Apply lube to the chain

Anytime you clean your mountain bike, you must apply lube to the chain, as the washing process will remove some of the lube.

“It is not necessary to have a heavy coating of lubricant on the outside of the chain or on the teeth of your chainrings and cogs. Rather, it’s the inner surfaces of the chain where wear takes place - the interfaces of the pins, plates, and rollers. ”

— Todd Downs in "The Bicycling Guide to Complete Bicycle Maintenance"

Wiping off excess chain lube

The largest factor causing a dirty drivetrain is too much lubricant. Excess lube on the outside of the chain will transfer to the cogs and chainring, which makes them “dirt magnets.”

After you have lubed your chain, make sure to spend at least 15 seconds wiping off the excess lubricant. You can’t wipe the chain off “too much,” so wipe it down well.

Final Thought

“There’s a difference between maintenance and repair. You know the saying, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure? Well, maintenance is prevention and repair is that costly cure.”

— Jenni Gwiazdowsk in "How to Build a Bike"

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The easiest and best preventative maintenance you can perform is simply to wash your bike or at the very minimum, your chain. Frequent and routine bike cleaning is easy. This will extend the life of your bike, as well as keep your bicycle running like new.

However, as one of my riding buddies likes to say, “it’s a tool, not a jewel.”

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Tune your bike like a Pro-Mechanic: Learn more NOW

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and is an avid MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction, & frequent cleaner and luber of his bikes.

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More articles from PEDAL CHILE

Sources:

1. Downs, Todd. The Bicycling Guide to Complete Bicycle Maintenance & Repair for Road & Mountain Bikes. Emmaus, Pa., Rodale, 2010.

2. Gwiazdowski, Jenni. How to Build a Bike : A Simple Guide to Making Your Own Ride. London, Frances Lincoln Limited Publishers, 2017.

3. Park Tool, and C. Jones. “How to Wash a Bike.” YouTube, 27 Oct. 2015.

4. Rohan Dubash, and Guy Andrews. Bike Mechanic : Tales from the Road and the Workshop. London, Bloomsbury, 2014.

5. Trek Bicycle Corporation. HOW TO HAVE MORE FUN ON YOUR NEW BIKE. 2018.

6. Wiggins, Christopher. Bike Repair & Maintenance. New York, New York, Usa, Alpha, A Member Of The Penguin Group (Usa) Inc, 2014.

7. Zinn, Lennard, and Todd Telander. Zinn & the Art of Mountain Bike Maintenance : The World’s Best-Selling Guide to Mountain Bike Repair. Boulder, Colorado, Velopress, 2018.

What Country Has Most Active Volcanoes

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Volcanic activity is the reason why the famous Big Island of Hawaii got 1 ½ kilometers of a fresh coastline not so long ago, why Guatemala’s El Rodeo cannot support human life anymore and why airports in different parts of the world, such as Bali in Indonesia have been getting closed unprecedentedly.

Our planet has 1,500 potentially active volcanoes, excluding the volcanoes on the ocean floor at spreading centers such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a huge mountain range at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean.

Yes, there could be more volcanoes in the ocean than on the earth’s surface, with experts estimating them to be about 10,000!

There are countries that rank extremely high in the number of volcanoes present within their borders worldwide and others in the total number of active volcanoes, and this article is here to clear the air for you in that regard with facts, as we explore some of the fiercest places on earth.

Let’s start with the top 7 most volcanic places on EARTH!

The most volcanic places on earth

1.    Indonesia

Semeru, Indonesia

“Approximately 13% of the world’s active volcanoes are located in Indonesia ”

— Akhmad Zaennudin

Indonesia contains so many active volcanoes that experts assert that more than 197 million Indonesians are living within 100 km of a volcano, with 9 million of them being within just 10 kilometers. 

Indonesia has the highest number of active volcanoes in the world and is one of the places in the world that are located within the Pacific Ring of Fire. This is a 25,000 mile (40,000km) horseshoe-shaped region that borders the Pacific Ocean, where countless tectonic plates clash.

Indonesia has 147 volcanoes, 129 of which are active. They spread along the islands of Sumatra, Celebes, Java, Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, Lesser Sunda, and Sulawesi islands.

Why does Indonesia have so many volcanoes?

Tectonically, the active volcanoes are the result of a collision between 3 primary tectonic plates:

• The Eurasian Plate moving south

• The Indian-Australian plate moving north

• Philippine Plate moving west

2.    Chile

Chile is home to over 2,000 volcanoes, 60 of which have erupted over the last 450 years, and according to the Global Volcanism Program, has 122 active volcanoes.

Villarrica volcano, one of the most active volcanoes, with 59 episodes eruptions since 1558

According to experts, about 40 could start erupting in the future. Chile has the second most active string of volcanoes, only surpassed by Indonesia.

In this country, we find Llaima and Villarica, two of the most active volcanoes in Latin America.

The country is found between the Nazca (an oceanic tectonic plate located in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin) and South American Tectonic Plates. The plates shift slowly due to a river of hot magma. The plates either move away from each other or hit against each other, and this underground movement causes volcanoes.

The most recent volcanic eruption in Chile occurred near Puerto Montt, in April 2015 where the Calbuco Volcano exploded and spewed a huge volume of ash that spread to Argentina. The eruption occurred in three phases and debris from the activity landed and piled up to a depth of 2 feet in some areas and thousands of people were evacuated from the area. This is the first time the volcano erupted in four decades.

Where is the world’s highest active volcano?

• Ojos del Salado on the Chilean and Argentinian border is the highest active volcano in the world at 22,614 feet (6,893 m), which is also Chile’s highest peak.

3. Japan

The tallest mountain in Japan is called Mount Fujiyama, which is an “active” volcano more famously known as Mount Fuji, which last erupted in 1707.

Japan alone accounts for nearly 1/10 of all the world’s active volcanoes with 108 of them currently active, more than any country except Indonesia and Chile.

Japan’s Mt. Fuji

These volcanoes belong to the Pacific Ring of Fire, a chain of volcanoes found throughout the Pacific Ocean and one of the most geologically active regions on our planet. 

The Ring of Fire extends from New Zealand clockwise in an almost circlular arc through: 

• Indonesia 

• Philippines

• Japan

• Papua New Guinea

• Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia

• Aleutian Island of Alaska (USA)

• Western coasts of North, Central, and South America 

• Also, the interior includes the Galapagos Islands and the Hawaiian Islands

The “Ring of Fire” (Image Source: Pambudi)

4. Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea is in orange. The western half of the Island is part of Indonesia (blue)

This island nation has nearly as many active volcanoes as Japan.

Papua New Guinea (PNG) is slightly larger than the state of California, except here, you will find 94 active volcanoes, including a “Decade Volcano.” 

Just Like Indonesia and Japan, Papua New Guinea falls in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Which makes sense as PNG shares an island with Indonesia. 

So what is a Decade Volcano? 

The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior has identified 16 volcanoes for intensive research because of their history of explosive eruptions in the proximity of populated areas. 

They are named “Decade Volcanoes” because the project was created in the 1990s by the United Nations to bring awareness to natural disasters.

5. Ethiopia

Volcanologist, David Pyle says, “the Ethiopian rift hosts nearly 60 volcanoes that are thought to have erupted in the past 10,000 years.” Making Ethiopia the 5th most geologically active country in the world.

Erta Ale - Maybe the most famous volcano in Ethiopia

Of all the volcanoes on Earth, only 7 have an active lava lake. Erta Ale in Ethiopia actually has two lava lakes, one of which has been active for over a century.

6. Philippines

Volcano Mayon in Albay is the most active volcano in the Philippines

The Philippines have a total of 53 active volcanoes and the country is graced by such a huge number owing to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

The volcanoes in this country are sometimes ranked as not only the most deadly, but also the most costly in the world.

Statistically, its historic eruptions that include the Mayon and Taal volcanoes have led to serious fatalities, and as high as 22% of its eruptions have caused substantial damage to the country.

The Philippines also witnesses lahars or mudflows and tsunamis that accompany eruptions more frequently than any other part of the world.

The most recent volcanic activity in the country was in January 2020, when a towering column of a 9-mile tall cloud of ash was seen spewing from the Taal volcano, which spread as far as 40 miles away and into the capital, Manila.

The eruption triggered a huge lightning and 144 earthquakes. More than 450,000 people were evacuated from the area.

7.    Guatemala

Volcan Fuego, Antigua, Guatemala

Just like Indonesia, Guatemala’s location within the Ring of fire is responsible for the threatening array of volcanoes found there. In this region, some experts call this the Central American Volcanic Arc (CAVA), which runs through five Central American countries, most notable Guatemala (El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica).

The country has 37 or more volcanoes, including the famous Fuego, Santiaguito, and Pacaya. The most recent eruption in the country was in June 2018, when the Fuego volcano near Guatemala City erupted, affecting more than 1.7 million people in three central states and killing hundreds as its deadly lava flows and clouds of ashes submerged entire villages.

How is an “active volcano” defined?

According to the Global Volcanism Program, an active volcano is one “that has erupted since the last ice age (i.e., in the past ~ 10,000 years).

By this definition, planet Earth has approximately 1,500 active volcanoes. On average, about 60 volcanoes erupt globally per year.

This map shows the most active volcanoes of recently….which means these volcanoes have actually erupted within the last decade

Countries with the most dormant & extinct volcanoes

“About 60 of the Earth’s 550 historically-active volcanoes are in eruption each year”

— This Dynamic Planet World Map of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics

What is a “dormant” and “extinct” volcano?

• A dormant volcano is a volcano that hasn’t erupted in the past 10,000 years, but is expected to erupt again.

• An extinct volcano is a volcano that is never expected to erupt again, but it’s probably safe to never say never.

#1. Chile

Chile is home to 2085 volcanoes, 94% of which are dormant or extinct.

The Chilean Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) stretches from near Santiago southwards to Cerro Hudson, in central Patagonia. This region is volcanologically the most active region of the Andes Mountain.

Why does Chile have so many volcanoes?

Volcan Osorno, Chile (glacier-covered stratovolcano)

Chile, like most volcanic regions, is located at the convergent boundary between a continental plate and an oceanic plate. When these plates converge, the heavier oceanic plates dives (subducts), below the lighter continental plate.

The result is molten rock (magma) from the pressure and heat and is called a subduction volcano.

2. Russia

Russia has over 400 volcanoes, most of which are found in the Kamchatka Peninsula on the eastern side of the country. Here, according to NASA, there are over 300 volcanoes, 29 of which are active. 

Kamchatka Peninsula

The highest volcanic mountain in Russia is known as Klyuchevskaya Sopka and stands at 15,584 feet (4,750 meters) above sea level. It’s also the biggest active volcano in the Northern Hemisphere. 

In January of 2011, the Kamchatka Peninsula had four volcanoes erupting simultaneously, all within 110 miles (180km) of each other.

3. Japan

“Mount Fuji is the tallest volcano in the country”

Japan has the third most volcanoes on Earth, totaling 270.

The volcanoes are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire and most of these volcanoes are found in Hokkaido, Chubu, Kanto, and Tohoku regions.

4. The United States of America

The U.S. has the 4th most volcanoes on Earth, 262 in total. Most of these volcanoes are found in Alaska, where you’d find eruptions nearly every year. The other volcanoes are located along the Pacific Ocean, and Hawaii, which houses Kilauea, the most active volcano on the planet. This volcano has continuously erupted since 1983.

Mount Hood is a stratovolcano in Oregon, United States of America

How many volcanoes are in Alaska?

• 91

• This means that 35% of all volcanoes in the United States can be found in Alaska

What state has the second most?

• California and Oregon tie….with 17 each. Mount Shasta and Mount Hood might be the most famous in each state.

5. Indonesia

A master of volcanoes it seems, Indonesia also makes it to this list by having a total of 147 volcanoes. It is said that the largest eruptions on earth so far have occurred in Indonesia.

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Bottom line

It’s clear that scientists are only starting to scratch the surface when it comes to the discovery of the existing number of volcanic mountains and active volcanoes in the planet. This is especially because 80 percent of the volcanic eruptions occur in the ocean, an area that is largely under-researched.

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FIND OUT WHY

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our geology expert. Valentina has been in love with volcanoes ever since she first saw Villarrica glowing in her native country of Chile. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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More articles from Pedal Chile

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References

1. “Calbuco Volcano Erupts.” Nasa.Gov, NASA Earth Observatory, 24 Apr. 2015, earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/85767/calbuco-volcano-erupts.

2. Cermak, Jan. Illustrated History Of Natural Disasters. 2016.‌

3. Charles Arthur Wood, and Jürgen Kienle. Volcanoes of North America : United States and Canada. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1990.

4. Dzierma, Yvonne, and Heidi Wehrmann. “On the Likelihood of Future Eruptions in the Chilean Southern Volcanic Zone: Interpreting the Past Century’s Eruption Record Based on Statistical Analyses.” Andean Geology, vol. 39, no. 3, 27 Sept. 2012.

5. “Four Erupting Volcanoes on the Kamchatka Peninsula.” Earthobservatory.Nasa.Gov, 3 Feb. 2013.

6. Global Volcanism Program, 2013. Volcanoes of the World, v. 4.9.0 (04 Jun 2020). Venzke, E (ed.). Smithsonian Institution

7. “Hudson.” Www.Volcanodiscovery.Com, www.volcanodiscovery.com/hudson.html.

8. Irfan, Umair. “A Volcano in the Philippines Is Spewing Ash and Threatening a Bigger Eruption.” Vox, 13 Jan. 2020.

9. Lara, Luis E. “The 2008 Eruption of the Chaitén Volcano, Chile: A Preliminary Report.” Andean Geology, vol. 36, no. 1, Jan. 2009.

10. Oppenheimer, C., et al. “Sulfur, Heat, and Magma Budget of Erta ‘Ale Lava Lake, Ethiopia.” Geology, vol. 32, no. 6, 2004, p. 509.

11. Pambudi, Nugroho Agung. “Geothermal Power Generation in Indonesia, a Country within the Ring of Fire: Current Status, Future Development and Policy.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 81, Jan. 2018, pp. 2893–2901.

12. Porterfield, Jason, and Corona Brezina. Chile : A Primary Source Cultural Guide. New York, Rosen Publishing Group’s, 2004‌.

13. Pyle, David. “Volcanoes of the Ethiopian Rift Valley | Www.Oxfordsparks.Ox.Ac.Uk.” Www.Oxfordsparks.Ox.Ac.Uk, 17 Nov. 2015.

14. Simkin, Tom, et al. This Dynamic Planet World Map of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics. 1994.

15. “Volcanoes of Indonesia.” Volcanodiscovery.Com, 2020, www.volcanodiscovery.com/indonesia.html.

16. ‌“Volcanoes of Japan: Facts & Information / VolcanoDiscovery.” Volcanodiscovery.Com, 2020, www.volcanodiscovery.com/japan.html.

17. “Volcanoes of Kamchatka.” Nasa.Gov, NASA Earth Observatory, 25 Sept. 2014, earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/84427/volcanoes-of-kamchatka.

18. “Why Guatemala’s Volcano Has Been More Deadly Than Hawaii’s.” The New York Times, 8 June 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/06/08/science/volcano-guatemala-hawaii.html.

19. Zaennudin, A.: “The characteristic of eruption of Indonesian activevolcanoes in the last four decades,” J. Lingkungan dan BencanaGeol., 1, 113–129, 201.

Snowiest cities in the Southern Hemisphere

Yes….it snows in Southern Chile….also known as “The Patagonia”

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Top 5 Snowiest Towns/Cities in the Southern Hemisphere

Most people that consider themselves weather-minded are often familiar with Vostok, Antarctica, and Death Valley, California, due to the extreme temperature ranges recorded in these areas. However, when you include “the snowiest areas” in the query, and limit the scope to the Southern Hemisphere, you get all sorts of “uncertain” responses.

Determining the snowiest areas in this region is difficult, owing to its geography. It has a smaller landmass and an abundance of water south of 40 degrees that limit zones of cold and snow to higher mountain elevations and Antarctica.

But as you are going to find out, there are known and hidden towns in the Southern Hemisphere that are very snowy, and this article brings to you the top five!

#1. Villa Las Estrellas, Antarctica

Besides having heavy snow, coupled with strong, continuous winds, Villa Las Estrellas has a yearly temperature mean of 28°F (-2°C), making it warmer than the Antarctic mainland.

The temperatures can, however, go as low as -52°F (-47°C) during winter, when the entire place is always buried by meters of snow, making it a little challenging for an average person to make it past the first week.

 

Villa Las Estrellas is one of the two towns in Antarctica that are regarded as civilian towns, the other one being the Argentinian Esperanza base that houses 55 winter residents.

As you’d expect, its harsh conditions that include deep snow are the reason you’d hear people saying that Villa Las Estrellas could be the closest we can get (here on earth) to experiencing life on an alien planet.

This town at the bottom of the planet was founded in 1984 when Chile was looking to strengthen its territorial claims in Antarctica. It is usually home to a range of between 200 to 7,000 people (depending on the season) and is often described as one of the safest places on earth (from human aggression, of course).

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“Villa Las Estrellas means “The Stars Village” in English ”

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Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva in Chile’s Antarctica - 800 meters away from Villa Las Estrellas (Image Source)

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#2. Bariloche, Argentina

Also known as the King of Argentinian winters, Bariloche is often the tourist destination for northern and southern hemisphere tourists looking for their “never-ending winter” pristine powder fix.

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Ski resort in Bariloche

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Its temperatures can go as low as 2°F (-16°C) and heavy snowfall has been recorded countless times, with the most recent (in 2019) depth of 4 feet recorded in Cerro Catedral Ski Resort in Bariloche.

The town experiences varying climatic ranges owing to its high elevation in the mountains, with temperatures dropping severely during the night, something that accounts for a huge discrepancy between low and high daily temperatures. Snow tends to appear on the mountain peaks during summer, and the winters are as long as they are cold, precisely why there’s a skiing culture predominant in the town.

#3 & #4. Wanaka & Queenstown, New Zealand

These two towns not only have (almost) similar weather conditions, they also are neighbors in the South Island of New Zealand.

For years, these have been some of the snowiest places in the Southern Hemisphere, and it is here where you are likely to see snow on the mountains on some days and endless snowfalls going on in the other areas for days, leading to major road shutdowns.

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Queenstown, New Zealand

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This is often the case in July, during winter when there is recurrent freeze and melt see-saws (as snowfalls are often followed by temperature rises).

Due to the high extent of snowfalls in these towns, there are five commercial ski resorts here, which include The Remarkables, Cardrona, Coronet Peak, Snow Farm, and Treble Cone.

As part of the Southern Island’s snowy climate, these areas receive precarious snowfalls that can go up to 21 inches (53 cm), creating extremely, thick and dense veils of snow everywhere.

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Lake Wanaka, New Zealand

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#5. Oberon, Australia

It’s worth noting that due to its separation from the Polar Regions by the Antarctic Ocean, Australia is not subjected to the frigid polar air that sweeps over the Northern Hemisphere. That makes it unlikely to have areas that receive heavy snow.

However, there is a small town known as Oberon that breaks the odds.

The town sits on the Blue Mountains at an altitude of 3,650 feet (1113 meters) above sea level and is one of the few areas in the Southern Hemisphere that are most famous for snow. When the first snowflakes start falling each year, visitors from Australia and beyond begin popping up on almost every street, in preparation for snowball fights and cuddling up by open fires when the weather becomes bearable.

Here, snow can fall at any time of the year in the town but it is often thicker during the winter months. Usually, you’ll find up to four good snowfalls in the season, with one snowfall seeing snow lying around for 24 hours or more. A heavy fall on the other hand usually leaves the snow around for a few days or up to one week.

The depth of snow in Oberon can go up to 8 inches (20 cm) and temperatures up to 21°F (-6°C). This scenic town has all the key factors that make it a huge magnet for snow (including elevation, conditions that favor precipitation and cold temperature), making it a snow gem in the middle of the Blue Mountains.

Mount Buller, Australia - about 491 miles from Oberon

Bottom line

The Southern Hemisphere doesn’t get much snow throughout the year, and generally, its winters are mild (compared to the Northern Hemisphere). This is the region where you’ll find countries or cities experiencing snow once every decade or century, while others lacking any documented evidence of ever experiencing any real snow in history.

The First Olympic Winter Game took place in 1924 in Chamonix, France. Of the 22 subsequent Winter Olympics, none have been held in the Southern Hemisphere…and it makes sense.

But as we’ve seen, there are a couple of towns that can brag about a decent amount (or extreme, in some cases) of snow each year within the Southern Hemisphere. Admittedly, they were difficult to find, but the results were inspiring.

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Valentina is a guide for Pedal Chile and is our resident badass. Valentina was born and raised in La Patagonia, which probably explains her affinity for adventuring. When Valentina isn’t crushing some poor dude’s soul, you can find her shredding down Rucapillán. Favorite season: Austral Summer

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More articles from Pedal Chile

References:

1. CNN, By Cathy Brown. “The Best Things to Do in Bariloche, Argentina.” 

2. ‌Crowe, Alex. “It’s Snow Beautiful! Region Laps up Weekend White-Out.” Central Western Daily, 10 Aug. 2019, www.centralwesterndaily.com.au/story/6321006/its-snow-beautiful-region-laps-up-weekend-white-out/.

3. ‌Moon, Linda. "Does It Snow in the Blue Mountains.” 11 July 2012,

4. ‌O’Reilly, Jessica, and Juan Francisco Salazar. “Inhabiting the Antarctic.” The Polar Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, 2 Jan. 2017, pp. 9–25.

5. ‌Richard Fisher. The Icy Village Where You Must Remove Your Appendix. www.bbc.com/future/gallery/20180810-villas-las-estrellas-antarctica-base-residents-surgery.

What is Seat Tube Angle?

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What is seat tube angle?

Traditionally, seat tube angle (STA) is defined as the angle between the seat tube and a horizontal line running through the bottom bracket.

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In simpler terms, this translates to the angle between the seat tube and the ground (See Figure 1).

• This affects the center of gravity and the distribution of weight on the wheels.

• Steeper STA improves pedaling efficiency but makes steering more difficult and worsens stability as weight is shifted to the front of the bike (example: Triathlon Bike).

• A slacker STA is more stable but creates inefficient pedaling (example: downhill mtb).

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(Figure 1) Seat tube angle = the position of the saddle relative to a horizontal line through the crank axis of the bicycle

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However, nowadays there are 3 additional ‘types’ of Seat Tube Angles:

1. Effective Seat Tube Angle (ESTA)

2. “Actual” Seat Tube Angle

3. “Virtual” Seat Tube Angle

Slack vs Steep

• “Steep” angle moves the saddle forward = larger or ‘steeper’ angle

• “Slack” angle moves the seat backward = smaller or ‘slacker’ angle

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ESTA vs sta

• The Effective Seat Tube Angle (ESTA) is similar to the traditional seat tube angle (STA) but with a few important differences:

Seat Tube Angle (STA) = Fixed Geometric Measurement

The Seat Tube Angle (STA) is a fixed geometric measurement of the frame, whereas the Effective Seat Tube Angle (ESTA) changes when the saddle position is moved

• Instead of measuring the angle through the seat tube, the angle is measured from the bottom bracket/crank axis to where your butt makes contact with the saddle (ischial tuberosities or “sit bones”)

The Effective Seat Tube Angle Is Adjustable

This angle is adjustable. Moving your seat forward/backward will alter the effective seat tube angle. Also, if you are riding with a dropper post, the ESTA will be different when fully extended vs middle or dropped position.

• The ESTA and STA, especially for mountain bikes, will have a significantly different angle. Keep in mind that the ESTA of an MTB is calculated to a “certain” saddle position, which means this is probably not the saddle position that you ride in, resulting in a different ESTA than the one listed.

Virtual Seat Tube Angle & "Undisclosed Saddle Height"

Since bicycle manufacturers measure Effective Seat Tube Angle from the center of the bottom bracket up to an undisclosed saddle height (reference point)

• This angle is sometimes called Virtual Seat Tube Angle, since the reference point measures a “virtual saddle height”

Is virtual Seat Tube Angle the same as Effective Seat Tube Angle?

No. Virtual angle is based upon an unknown reference point whereas effective angle is based upon a known saddle height in relation to the bottom bracket

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LEARN MORE

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Actual Seat Tube Angle

(Figure 3) The seat tube does NOT intersect the bottom bracket

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Actual STA: No BB & Seat Tube Interaction

‘Actual’ Seat Tube Angle pertains to mountain bikes or any bike where the seat tube and bottom bracket don’t intersect:

• ‘Actual’ Seat Tube Angle = the angle of the seat tube on the frame

• The seat tube doesn’t actually connect to the bottom bracket as the seat tube isn’t straight (see figure 3)

• Unless you are riding a mountain bike with the saddle fully extended or dropped, the ESTA is a more accurate measurement

Seat tube angle affects

5 seat tube angles: between 59 (E) and 99 (A) degrees

Steeper STA & Improved Aerodynamics

Increasing the Seat Tube Angle can decrease your torso angle, reduce wind resistance, and improve aerodynamics. These are all reasons why triathlon bikes are engineered with steeper Seat Tube Angles.

• Road Bike STA = 72° to 76°

• Triathlon bike STA = 78° to 82°

• XC Mountain Bikes STA = the low to mid-70s°

• Downhill Mountain Bike ESTA= low 60s°

STA & Muscle Activation

An increased Seat Tube Angle alters your knee angle, which results in muscle strength and contraction changes:

• Increased power-output = improved climbing and sprinting

• Less muscle fatigue = Improved pedal efficiency

• Improved facilitation of the bike-to-run transition for triathletes

  • Able to maintain the same power-output while significantly reducing the muscular activation of the hamstrings. This allows the triathlete to maintain their normal running gait after cycling.

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“A steeper STA can reduce the load on lower extremity muscles which might enhance pedaling efficiency at STAs between 59° to 89°”

— From: Chia-Hsiang Chen, Ying-Hao Huang, and Tzyy-Yuang Shian

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Mountain Biking & Seat Tube Angle

Modern Cross-Country style mountain bikes with dropper posts are designed with steeper angles, which places you further forward while in the saddle.

• This makes climbing easier since more of your body weight is transferred to the front wheel. However, descending becomes more challenging, unless you have a dropper post to get your seat out of your way.

Slack vs Steep: Seat Tube Angle Terminology



Steep STA & Pedal Power

A steep Seat Tube Angle will place you on top of the pedals for optimal pedaling. This is why an XC-MTB will have a steeper STA compared to the slacker (smaller angle) STA of a downhill mountain bike. 

• Descending with a steep STA is challenging…..so if you ride technical terrain, you better have a dropper post.

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View fullsize

“Slack” STA of 72 degrees vs “Steep” STA of 82 degrees - (Figure 4)

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Steep vs Slack

• Steep = Larger angle = put pelvis further forward relative to the crank = optimal pedaling (‘steep’ angle moves the seat forward)

• Slack = smaller angle = more stretched out = better for descending technical trails (‘slack’ angle moves the saddle backward, which is why downhill MTB have ESTA in the low 60s°)

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“Because your seat tube angle determines where your saddle is in relation to your top pedals, it has an enormous effect on the way you pedal your bike”

— From the book: Mastering Mountain Bike Skills

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Final Thought

Bike geometry can be overwhelming. Even if you fully grasp STA, simply adjusting your saddle forward increases your ESTA, thus modifying the distance between your handlebars and saddle, which alters your existing bicycle geometries.

Understanding the basic premise of the seat tube angle is important. Knowing this concept allows you to purchase a bike or adjust your current bike to best suit your style of riding. However, bottom bracket height, chainstay length, and especially head tube angle all affect the way your bike feels.

The only true way to understand bicycle geometry is to live it…..go out and ride.

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Yes…help me dial in my ride!

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Jesse is Director of Pedal Chile and lives in Valdivia, Chile (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health & Human Performance and is an avid MTBer, snowboarder, reader of narrative non-fiction & taster of craft beers.

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Sources:

1. Chen, Chia-Hsiang et al. “The effect of bicycle seat-tube angle on muscle activation of lower extremity.” (2015).

2. Cheung, Stephen S, and Mikel Zabala. Cycling Science. Champaign, Il, Human Kinetics, 2017.

3. Duggan, Will et al. “Effect of Seat Tube Angle and Exercise Intensity on Muscle Activity Patterns in Cyclists.” International journal of exercise science vol. 10,8 1145-1156. 1 Dec. 2017

4. Lopes, Brian, et al. Mastering Mountain Bike Skills. Champaign (Il) ; Windsor (On) ; Leeds (Ls), Human Kinetics, 2017.

5. Ricard, Mark D et al. “The effects of bicycle frame geometry on muscle activation and power during a wingate anaerobic test.” Journal of sports science & medicine vol. 5,1 25-32. 1 Mar. 2006

   • (Figure 4)

6. Silder, Amy, et al. “Influence of Bicycle Seat Tube Angle and Hand Position on Lower Extremity Kinematics and Neuromuscular Control: Implications for Triathlon Running Performance.” Journal of Applied Biomechanics, vol. 27, no. 4, Nov. 2011, pp. 297–305.

7. Umberger, B. R., et al. “DIFFERENCES IN POWER OUTPUT DURING CYCLING AT DIFFERENT SEAT TUBE ANGLES.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, vol. 30, no. Supplement, May 1998, p. 81.

Does Chain Lube Expire

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Does chain lubricant expire?

Bicycle chain lubricants don’t have expiration dates.

However:

• Lubricants, in general, have a manufacturer recommended storage-life of 1-10 years

• In reality, if the lubricant is stored in a sealed container and is not exposed to extreme heat, the storage-life is well over 100 years for any type of lubricant

• The longer your chain lube has been stored, the longer you need to shake it

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What is the Storage life once opened?

Once the container has been opened, the storage life depends on how many additives are in the lubricant.

As far as bicycle lubricants are concerned:

• A typical bike chain lube is a fairly simple formula with minimal additives

  • For example, bike chains operate under normal temperature conditions, which means no high temperature regulating chemicals need to be added

  • The base of any lube is stable….it’s the additives that stratify, oxidize or evaporate

You can keep using your bike lube for years after opening, if:

• You store your lube out of direct sunlight

• The cap was nice and snug

• Avoid storing in extreme heat

• And don’t forget to shake before applying

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Scientifically formulated to go FASTER

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What does bicycle chain lube consist of?

“A typical commercial lubricant contains a blend of base oils and several categories of additives including antioxidants, detergents, dispersants, friction modifiers, anti-wear and/or extreme-pressure additives, and viscosity modifiers”

— Yan Zhou

1. Oil or a grease base (biological, mineral, or synthetic)

2. Additives (such as thickeners, fillers, wax emulsifier (shorter storage life)

Mineral oils are the most commonly used chain lubricant and are petroleum-based. They are very stable and will last for years as they have already been in the ground for eons.

A typical chain lubricant is 95% base stock and 5% additives. Car lubricants, by comparison, are closer to 80% base stock and 20% additives, which results in significantly shorter storage life.

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Final Thought

Bicycle chain lubes are mostly comprised of a synthetic or petroleum base. This base is very stable. As long as you store your lube with the cap tightly snug and indoors, the lubricant will be good for years.

Regular cleaning and lubing of your drive-train are critical. Unless you forgot about a bottle of lube in your garage, you should never have to worry about a bottle of lube expiring.

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Yes. I would like more BikeFitting info

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Jesse is the Director of Pedal Chile and lives in La Patagonia (most of the year). Jesse has a Master of Science in Health and Human Performance and a Bachelor of Science in Kinesiology. Hobbies: Mountain biking, cleaning & lubing my bike, reading non-fiction, and sampling yummy craft beer.

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